Roman Empire

>

Empireestablishment

_{Mainentry:RomanRepublic}

TheendoftheRomanRepublicwasaturbulentera.In44BC,GaiusJuliusCaesarwasassassinated,andhiswillappointedOctavianashisheir.Octavian,whowas19yearsoldatthetimeandwasintheGreekApolloniaArmy,immediatelymarchedbacktoRomeafterlearningaboutit.RomeatthistimeisinthehandsofBrutusandCassius,therepublicanelderswhomurderedCaesar.OctavianmanagedtoformanalliancewithCaesar'scolleaguesMarkAnthonyandLepida,whichisknownasthelatterthreeallianceinhistory.ThethreebegantocleanuptheheresyoftheSenate,andmorethanahundredsenatorsandthousandsofknightswerekilled.AntonyandOctavianledanarmytopursueBrutusandCassiuswhohadfledtotheeast.In42BC,BrutusandCassiuscommittedsuicideinthebattleofPhilippi.OctavianreturnedtoRome,andAnthonywenttoEgypttoallywithCaesar’slover,CleopatraVII(Cleopatra),QueenofthePtolemaicdynastyofEgypt.Atthispoint,RomebelongedtoOctavianinthewestandAnthonyintheeast.

AnthonyfocusedontheParthianwarintheEast,andalwaysmaintainedacloserelationshipwiththeQueenofEgypt.OctavianmadealotofpeopleinRome,consolidatedpower,andatthesametimeslanderedAntony,claimingthathehadcolludedwithforeignforcesandrebelledagainstRome.Thecontradictionbetweenthetwosideshasbecomeincreasinglyfierce.Finally,inthefirst32years,OctaviandeclaredwaronAnthony.InSeptember31BC,thecoalitionforcesofAnthonyandtheQueenofEgyptfoughtOctavianatCapeActinginGreece,knownastheBattleofActing.Asaresult,AnthonywasdefeatedandfledbacktoEgyptwiththequeen.Inthefirst30years,whenOctavianinvadedEgypt,AntonyandtheQueencommittedsuicide.TheQueenandCaesar'sillegitimatesonCaesarLeonwasexecuted,andthePtolemaicdynastyperished.Atthispoint,EgyptbecameaprovinceofRome.

Inthefirst27years,Octaviancleverlyusedpoliticalskillstodeclaretotheoutsideworldthathewouldseverallpowersandrestoretherepublic;ontheotherhand,hepretendedtobeforcedbytherequestoftheSenateandcitizenstoacceptthatitwascompletelycontrarytotherepublic.Theabsolutepowertobecomethechiefelder(thatis,theheadofstate,fromwhichtheheadofstatesystemcame),thesupremeconsul,thelife-longconsul,thelifeguarantor,thechiefpriest,etc.,claimingtobethe"firstcitizen",thesupremecommander(ortranslatedas""GeneralTriumph","GrandMarshal"),andwonthetitlesof"Augustus"(meaning"sacred")and"FatheroftheFatherland"awardedbytheSenate.ThiswonderfulperformancebyOctavianannouncedtheestablishmentoftheRomanEmpire.

Transitionanddevelopment

_{Mainentry:JuliaClaudiussub>}

DuringthereignofAugustus,hereformedthemilitary,reducedarmaments,andestablishedthefirststandingarmyandguardsintheempire;setupacabinettoassisttheemperorinhandlinggovernmentaffairs;The"NationalTaxationBureau"wasestablishedtocontrolthefinancialpower;theadministrativedivisionswerereorganized,andtheprovincesoftheSenateandtheemperorweredividedtoestablishtheemperor'shighestmilitarypower.AugustususeddiplomaticmeanstoestablishfriendlyrelationswithParthiaandArmenia.

Inthefirst19years,theempireconqueredallofSpain.Beginning16yearsago,AugustussenttroopstotheeasternAlpsandtheupperreachesoftheDanube,settinguptwoprovinces,RetiaandNorric,andthensenttroopstothemiddleandlowerreachesoftheDanube,settinguptwoprovinces,PannoniaandMessia.Inthefirst12to5years,thelandbetweentheRhineandtheElbewasgraduallyconquered,butthenewlyconqueredlandcontinuedtoriot.In9years,thegeneralVaruswasambushedinthebattleoftheTeutoburgForesttosuppresstheGermanuprisingandwasannihilated.AugustushadtoabandonthelandbetweentheRhineandtheElbe.Sincethen,theexpansionoftheRomanEmpiretoWestGermanyceased.Augustusdidnotcarryoutanymajorexpeditions,andthefollowingtwocenturieswerealongperiodofstability,calledthe"RomanPeace"period.

In14years,AugustusdiedandpasseddownhisadoptedsonTiberius.Inordertostrengthentheimperialpower,Tiberiusabolishedthelegislativepowerandvotingpowerofthecitizens'assembly,andconcentratedtheguardstoRometodefendtheemperor.Tiberiushadacoldandharshpersonality.Inthelaterperiodofhisreign,heactedarbitrarilyandrepeatedlysanctionedagainstorcriticizedtheemperor'swordsanddeeds.HedemandedthattheSenatecouldonlyexpressthesameopinionsashim,andtherelationshipbetweentheSenateandthefamilywasstrained.HeretiredtoCapriin26years,whereheruledRomefornearlytenyears.In37years,TiberiusdiedofCapri.

AfterthedeathofTiberius,theGuardsmadeCaligulatheemperor.ThisisthefirsttimeinRomanhistorythatanarmyhassupportedanemperor.Intheearlydaysofhisreign,Caligulawasgenerousandgenerous,andwasuniversallylovedbythepeople.Inthelaterperiod,hesuddenlysufferedfrommentalillness,ignoredstateaffairs,indulgedinentertainmentactivities,becamemoody,brutalandbloodthirsty,oftenexecutedSenatemembersandnoblesandconfiscatedtheirproperty.For40years,helecturedinRometopromotepersonaldictatorshipanddeifytheemperor.In41,Caligulawaskilledbytheguards.

AfterCaligula'sdeath,theguardssupportedhiselderlyuncleClaudiusascendedthethrone.DuringClaudius’sreign,hereformedgovernmentagenciesandestablishedabureaucraticsystem:thecentralgovernmenthasthreedepartments,namelytheSecretariat(inchargeofinternalaffairs,military,andforeignaffairs),theFinanceDepartment(inchargeoffinances),andtheJudicialDepartment(inchargeoflaws)..Improvedthestatusofknights,andgrantedRomancitizenshiptoresidentsoftheprovince.Asaresult,provincialnoblescanalsoserveasseniorofficialsorentertheSenate.Intermsofexternalexpansion,ithasconqueredsouthernBritainandMauritania.ClaudiusalsobuilttheportofOstiaatthemouthoftheTiberRiverandalarge-scalewaterpipeline.In54years,ClaudiusmaybepoisonedtodeathbyQueenAgrippinatheYounger.

AfterClaudiusdied,hisadoptedsonNerocametothethrone.DuringNero'sreign,heformulatedanumberofpoliciesthatbenefitedthecommonpeople.TheappointmentofthefamousplayerCorbrosuccessfullyresolvedthecrisisbetweenParthiaandArmenia.Butatthesametime,hewasalsoafamoustyrantinRomanhistory,cruelandtyrannical,andmurderedmothersandwives.Heispassionateaboutartandconsidershimselfa"greatartist".In64,afirebrokeoutinRome,andalmostallofthecitywasburneddown.Afterthefire,Nerobegantobuildanewpalacenamed"GoldenPalace".RumorsspreadinRome:Nerosetfiretobuildanewpalace.Inordertoeliminaterumors,NerousedChristiansasscapegoatstohuntandkillthem.In1966,theJewishWarbrokeoutinPalestine.Atthistime,NerowenttoGreeceforalongarttour.AsNerofellinpower,uprisingsagainstNerobrokeouteverywhere.InMarch1968,theGovernorofGaulWendéxandtheGovernorofSpainGarbarebelled.InMay,Wendikeswasdefeatedanddied.Atthistime,theSenatedeclaredNerotobeapublicenemyofthecountry,andNerocommittedsuicidewhilefleeing.

_{Mainentry:TheYearoftheFourEmperors}

AfterNero'sdeath,theSenaterecognizedGarbaasemperor.DuetoGarba'soldageandfrailty,unabletocontrolthesituation,leadinggeneralsaroundtheworldhaveastrongsenseofself-respect.InJanuary1969,Vitrius,governorofLowerGermania,proclaimedhimselfemperor,whileGarbawaskilledbyhissubordinatesOtto,whomadehimselfemperor.InMarch,VitriussenttroopstocompetewithOttoforthethrone,andOttocommittedsuicideindefeat.InJuly,WeiPaxiang,thegeneralwhowasquellingtheJewishrebellion,wasadoptedasemperorbymanytroops.InOctober,WeiPaxiangdefeatedVitriusandendedthebattleforthethrone.

Stabilizationandconsolidation

_{Mainentry:FlavicDynasty}

InDecember69,WeiPaxiangbecameemperor.AfterWeiPaxiangbecameemperor,theempirewasfacingacrisis,andhefirstsuppressedtheuprisingsinvariousplaces.In70years,successfullysuppressedtheBadawirebellion.Inthesameyear,hissonTituscapturedJerusalem,massacredalargenumberofJews,andburneddowntheJewishtemple.TheJewishWarended.Inordertomakeupforthefinancialproblemscausedbythecivilwar,WeiPaxiangstrengthenedtaxationmanagementandincreasedprovincialtaxestorectifythemilitaryandinternalaffairs.Duringhisreign,hevigorouslystrengthenedthestatusoftheprovince.In1973,headdedthenoblesofvariousprovincestotheSenateandgrantedRomancitizenshiptomanynoblesoftheprovinces,allowingthenoblesoftheprovincestoparticipateinpoliticsextensively.

In1979,WeiPaxiangdiedandhissonTitusbecamethethrone.Titusismoderateinpolitics.Inthefirstyearofhistenure,MountVesuviuseruptedandburiedPompeii;afterthat,firesandplaguesbrokeoutinRome.Titusranaround,tiredofdisasterreliefwork.

In1981,TitusdiedandhisyoungerbrotherDomitiancametothethrone.Domitianvigorouslypromotedtheimperialpower,consolidatedtheheadofstatesystem,reformedthecabinet,andfurtherattractedtheknightlyclasstoparticipateinpolitics.Intermsofexternalexpansion,heachievedsuccessinSouthGermany,buildingtheGermanGreatWall,connectingtheRhineandtheupperreachesoftheDanubeintoonebodyandincorporatingitintotheempire'sterritory.However,helosttwiceinthewaragainstDaciaandfinallygavegiftstomakepeace.Domitianwasanautocraticdictatorship,whoregardedhimselfas"theLordandGod"anddespisedtheSenate.In1989,Domitianexecutedalargenumberofeldersanddignitariesunderthepretextofsupportingtherebellion,whichcausedpanicamongthepeople.In1996,Domitiandiedinacourtcoup.

Prosperity

_{Mainentry:AntonianDynasty}

AfterDomitian'sdeath,theSenateelectedNerva,anoldandheirlessformerconsulasemperor.Nervarespectedandtreatedthesenatorswell,andtheauthorityoftheSenatewasrestoredtosomeextent.Buthewasquiteunpopularwiththearmyandmilitarycommanders.Inordertowinthesupportofthearmy,NervaselectedtheoutstandingGermanicgovernorTrajanashisadoptedsoninthesecondyearofhisascension,successfullyquellingthearmy'sdissatisfaction.

In1998,NervadiedandTrajancametothethrone.Hewasthefirstemperorfromaprovincialnobleman.TrajancontinuedtoimplementNerva'spolicyoftreatingtheelderswell,vigorouslyconstructingpublicfacilities,andactivelyexpandingabroad.Duringhisreign,theterritoryoftheRomanEmpirereacheditsmaximum.From101onwards,TrajanledhisarmytoinvadeDacia,andin106itwascompletelyconquered,andDaciaprovincewasestablished.Trajanheldagrandtriumphalceremony,announcingthecelebrationof123days,andbuilttheancientRomanTrajanPillar.In105,TrajanoccupiednorthernArabiaandestablishedArabprovinces.In114,TrajanannexedArmeniaandestablishedtheArmenianProvince.Afterthat,TrajancontinuedtoadvanceeastwardanddefeatedtheParthianarmy.In116,heoccupiedthecapitalofParthianTaisifeng.Attheendoftheyear,Trajan'ssoldiersarrivedinthePersianGulf,andhewastheonlyRomancommanderwhohadreachedhere.In117,Trajan'sdiseasewasseverelywithdrawn,andtwoprovinces,AssyriaandMesopotamia,wereestablished.Beforehedied,Hadrianwasannouncedasanadoptedson.

AfterTrajan'sdeath,Hadrianascendedthethrone.Hadrianturnedoffensivetodefensive,givingupthelandthatTrajanhadconqueredintheeast.DuringHadrian'sreign,hetraveledmanytimes,andhisfootprintscoveredalmosttheentireempire.Duringthisperiod,hebuilttheeast-west"Hadrian'sWall"inthenorthernpartoftheBritishIslestodefendagainsttheintrusionofthebarbariansinScotland;unifiedrecruitmentstandards,strengthenedthequalityofthearmy,andestablishedatemporaryarmysystem.Hadrianfurtherenhancedtheimperialpower,takingthewilloftheemperorasthesupremelaw,andorderedjuriststocompilethe"PermanentEdict"asthelegalbasisoftheempire;vigorouslystrengthenthestatusofknightsandmakeitaspecificbureaucraticclass;continueandstrengthentheprovinceTheRomanizationofthecountrynarrowedthedistancebetweentheprovincialcitiesandRome.HealsorebuiltthefamousPantheoninRome.In131,HadrianbannedJewsfromcircumcision,SabbathandreadingJewishlaws.ThistriggeredaJewishuprising.TheRomanarmykilled580,000Jewsintwoyearstosuppresstheuprising.HadrianbannedJewsfromlivinginJerusalem,andalargenumberofJewshaveneversettledinJerusalem.Hadrianattachesgreatimportancetotheissueofheirs.Hechosea52-year-oldmemberofParliament,AntonniAsylum,ashisadoptedson,andaskedhimtoadopt18-year-oldmemberofParliamentMarcoAureliusand7-year-oldLuciusViru.Siistheadoptedson.

In138,Hadrianpassedaway,andhisadoptedson,AntoniAsylum,tookthethrone.DuringAntoniAsylum’sreign,heconvergedonthebordersandwasgenerallyfine;hehadagoodrelationshipwiththeSenate,hadagoodrelationshipwiththeSenate,andenjoyedapeacefulandprosperousperiodinRomeformorethan20years.

In161,AntoniusPiusdied,andthethronewasinheritedbytwoadoptedsons,VerusandMarcoAurelius.ThiswasthefirsttimeinRomanhistorythatthetwoemperorsruledtogether.MarcoAureliusisthefamous"philosopheremperor"andthemainexpounderofStoicphilosophy.Heistheauthorof"Meditations",whileVerusismoremediocre.

Whenthetwocametothethrone,thesituationontheborderoftheempirewassevere.ParthiainvadedArmeniain162.Afterfouryearsofhardwork,VerusrepelledParthiaandannexedMessofrom164to165.NorthofPotamia.In167,theGermansinvadedagain,andthetwoemperorshadtoleadtheirtroopstoconquer.Duetofinancialconstraints,thesilvercontentofthedinarsilvercoinwasfurtherreduced.In169,Velusdied,andtheempirewasrestoredtothesituationofanemperor.InordertorelievethepressureoftheGermansontheempire,MarcoAureliusallowedthemtosettleontheborderoftheempire,layingahiddendangerforfuturebarbarianinvasions.In175,thegeneralAvidiusCassiuslaunchedarebellionintheeasternpartoftheempire,anditwasquicklysuppressed.MarcoAureliusthenlaunchedawaragainsttheGermansinanattempttoannexBohemia.In180,justbeforesuccess,MarcoAureliusdiedofillness.

MarcoAureliuswasarelativelygreatemperor.Duringhisreign,hewasdiligentandlovingthepeople,activelyhandledgovernmentaffairs,andguardedthebordersoftheempire.However,duringthisperiod,theGermanicbarbarianincursionsintensified,theborderdefenselinehasbeeninastateoflosingground,andthedomesticeconomicsituationisdeterioratingdaybyday.Afterhisdeath,theRomanEmpiregraduallybegantodecline.

Fromprosperitytodecline

AfterthedeathofMarcoAureliu,hisson,KangMaode,succeededtothethrone.Intheearlydaysofhisreign,Commodoredidnotdaretoindulge,andrespectedtheeldersappointedbyMarcoOleliutoassisthimduringhislifetime.In182,hissisterLucillaandsomeelderstriedtoassassinatehim.Aftertheincident,heexecutedeveryoneinvolvedintheassassinationandmanyinnocentpeople.Fromthenon,KangMaodenolongertrustedtheelders,andhandedoverthepoliticalaffairstothefavoredministerandthecommanderoftheguards.Inthelatereign,hewascruelandsuspicious.Helikedcircus,wrestlingandothersportsactivities.HeclaimedtobethereincarnationofHercules.

Commod'srulecauseddissatisfactionamongthepeople,andmanypeopleconspiredtoassassinatehim,whichalsomadehimmoreweirdandtyrannical.Attheendof192,whenCommodoreannouncedthathewouldbedressedasagladiatorastheconsul,hismistressgavehimaglassofpoisonandwassubsequentlymurderedbyawrestlersentbythecommanderoftheGuards.

_{Mainentry:TheYearoftheFiveEmperors}

KangAfterthedeathofProud,theGuardsadoptedthecitygovernorPettinaxasemperor.PettinaxactivelyquelledthenegativeimpactofCommodoreontheempire,butwhenhewantedtocleanupmilitarydiscipline,hewasimmediatelykilledbytheguards.

AfterPetinax'sdeath,theGuardsunexpectedlyannouncedthatthethronewouldbeauctioned,andthosewhobidmorecanbecometheemperor.Aftercompetitionamongmanypeople,Julianusboughtthethroneatapricesatisfiedbytheguards.ButJulianusdidnothaveafollower,andthearmydismissedhimevenmore.TheSyriangovernorNageltooktheleadinestablishinghimselfasemperor,andthenthegovernorofPannoniaandtheNorthAfricanSeverusrebelled.HeledthetroopsquicklytoRome.Themoraleoftheguardswaslowandtheywerequicklydefeated.TheSenateinsteaddeclaredSeverusemperor.TheGuardsexecutedJulianustorequestSeverus'forgiveness.AfterenteringRome,Severusexecutedalltheoriginalguardsonchargesoftreason,andformedalargernewguardwithhisownsoldiers.

Thecrisisbegins

_{Mainentry:SeverusDynasty}

AfterSeverusbecameemperor,heimmediatelywenttowarwithNigel,whohadalreadybecomeemperor.In194,NigelwasdefeatedatIssus.In197,SeverusdefeatedtherebelliousBritishGovernorAlbanusinLyon,andthecivilwarfrom193ended.Severuswasasoldierandhewasaccustomedtoactingarbitrarily.HedidnotputtheSenateinhiseyesandremovedmanysenatorsfromimportantpositionsandreplacedthemwithcroniesandknights.Severus’rulewasbackedbythearmy.HeexpandedhisarmyaggressivelyandexpandedtheRomanarmytoanunprecedentedlevel.Mostofthemwereforeigners,andtheyusedhighratestowinoverthearmy,andhewasnotstingywithrewards.Severusachievedconsiderablemilitarysuccess.Inadditiontoendingthecivilwar,healsodefeatedParthiain197andonceagainannexednorthernMesopotamiaandsetitasaprovince.Severustransitionedtheheadofstatetoanabsolutemonarchy.Thejuristsatthetimesaidthat"heisnotsubjecttoalllawsandistherulerofanyone,andtheempireishisproperty."In208,SeverussenttroopstoBritaintoconquersouthernScotland.In211,hediedofillnessinYork.Attheendofhislife,hislastwordstothetwosonswere:"Mayyourbrothersgetalongwitheachothersothatthesoldierscangetrichanddon’tcareaboutothers."

AfterSeveru’sdeath,thetwosonsCaracallaandGettaAtthesametimeascendedthethrone.Caracallawasanothertyrant,andthefollowingyear,hekilledhisbrotherGetaandhiscomrades.Hiswife,father-in-lawandmanyfamouspeoplewerealsokilled.CaracallacontinuedtoimplementSeverus’policyofpreferentialtreatmenttothearmy.Inordertoincreaseincomeandexpandtaxsources,CaracallaissuedtheAntoninusedictin212,grantingallfreecitizensintheempiretherightofRomancitizenship.In217,CaracallawaskilledbytheguardswhenhesetouttoParthia.

AfterCaracallawaskilled,thecommanderoftheGuards,Maclinus,establishedhimselfastheemperor,andhissonDiadomenianwastheco-emperor.AfterMaclinussucceededtothethrone,heacceptedextremelyunfavorableterms,endedthewarwithParthia,andreducedmilitaryexpenditures,whichledtodissatisfactionwiththearmy.In218,Severus’wifeandsisterJuliaMisaincitedarebellion,andbothMaclinusandDiadomenianwerekilledinAsiaMinor.

Misathenmadehis13-year-oldgrandsonElagabalustheemperor.ElgabalusworshipedtheEasterngods,waslicentious,ignoredstatepolitics,andhadaverypoorrelationshipwiththeSenateandthearmy.In222,MisaacquiescedinkillinghimbytheGuardsandmadehis14-year-oldgrandsonAlexanderSeverusemperor.DuringthereignofAlexanderSeverus,relationswiththeSenateimproved.In231,AlexanderSeveruswenttotheeasttofightagainsttheemergingempireofSasanianPersia.Thesituationimprovedslightly,andherushedtothewesttoresisttheGermanicinvadingsouth.In235,thearmyrebelledandAlexanderSeveruswaskilled.

Crisisclimax

_{Mainentry:Thethirdcenturycrisis}

AfterthedeathofAlexanderSeverus,thearmyadoptedThracianMaximinusasemperor.Maximinuscamefromabarbarianandwasdespisedbyothers,sohetreatedtheSenateandthepeoplewithbrutalmethods.In238,theSenatesecretlyinstructedtheguardstokillhim.Inthesameyear,theSenateintroducedfouremperors,allofwhichwerekilled.GordianIII,whosubsequentlytookthethrone,wasonly13yearsoldandwasapuppetoftheGuards.In244,thearmysupportedPhiliptheArab.In247,Philiporganizedthecelebrationofthe1000thanniversaryofthefoundingofRome.In249,PhilipwaskilledbytherebelgeneralDecius.DeciusdiedinthewarwiththeGothsin251.DuringthereignofGallus,aprotractedplaguebrokeout.Gallusdiedatthehandsofsoldiersin253.TheascendedValerianandhissonGalienusledtwoarmies,oneresistingSassanidPersiaintheeast,andtheotherresistingtheGermansinthewest.Thiswasthefirsttodividetheempirefromeasttowest.In260,thegeneraloftheRhineregion,PersDumusestablishedhimselfasemperor,establishedtheGaulEmpire,andruledGaul,Britain,andmostofSpain.Inthesameyear,ValerianwascapturedwhilefightingPersia,buttheresultisunknown.In267,Palmyraintheeastbecameindependent,splittingpartoftheeasternprovinces.

Atthistime,thechaosoftheRomanEmpirereacheditsextreme.Theempirewasdividedintothree,andthecentralgovernmentwasalmostparalyzed.Theemperornotonlyhadtofaceexternalenemies,butalsosuppressedtherebelliousarmiesandrebelliouspeoplefromtimetotime.Inaddition,thearmycontinuestosupportthenewemperor,hopingformorerewards.Iftherewardisnotgenerous,theemperorwillbekilled.In268,GaryEnnusreformedthemilitary,dismissedothermilitarypositions,andestablishedanewreservearmystationedinMilan,withMilanasthemilitarycapitaloftheempire.ThereformedarmysuccessfullydefeatedtheEasternGothicoffensive.In269,theBhagadamovementbrokeoutintheGaulregionbyslavesandfarmers'uprisings.Theinsurgentsestablishedthemselvesasemperorsandmintedcoins,whichlasteduntil286.

TheIllyrianEmperors

Galiennuswaskilledbyhismenlessthanayearafterreformingthemilitary,andClaudiusIIcametothethrone.HedefeatedtheAlamanifirst,thendefeatedapowerfulGothicarmy,andwonthetitleof"BrotherFeatureServant".

ClaudiusIIdiedoftheplaguein270,andAurelianascendedthethrone.AurelianstrucktheGothsagaininPannoniaandendedtheinvasionoftheGoths.ThenheledthearmytodefeatthePalmyraEmpire,regainedAsiaMinorandSyria,thenattackedthecityofPalmyra,capturedPalmyraQueenZinobia,andtookPalmyrain273.Thecitywasrazedtotheground.Inthesameyear,theGaulEmperorTetricusI,inordertosuppressthedomesticuprising,appealedtoOlelianforhelp,expressinghiswillingnesstogiveupindependence,andGaul,BritainandSpainwerereintegratedintotheempire.Aurelianreunitedtheempire,sohewascalledthe"WorldRestorer".Inordertostrengthenthedefense,Aurelianbuiltanewwall20kilometerslongand6metershighforRome,andabandonedDaciainordertousethenaturaldangersoftheDanubetodefend.

In275,AurelianwaskilledduringanexpeditiontoSasanianPersia,andtheSenateappointedClaudiusTacitusasemperor.ThiswasthelasttimethattheSenateelectedanemperor.Tacitusdiedayearafterhisreign,andthearmysupportedProbus.ProbussmashedtheGermanicinvasionofGaulinthreewaysandexpelledtheVandalsfromtheBalkans.

In282,ProbuswaskilledandMarcoAureliusCarusascendedthethrone.CarusonceagaindefeatedtheGermansinthenorthandattackedPersia,onceoccupyingTessifon.In283,Carusdiedviolently,andhissonCarinussucceeded.In284,thecommanderoftheGuards,Diocletian,rebelledanddefeatedKarinusnearBelgradeandbecametheruleroftheempire.

Stabilityandreform

_{Mainentry:TheFourEmperors'Co-governmentSystem}

AfterDiocletianbecameemperor,hechangedtheheadofstatetoarealmonarchy.Themonarchworeacrownandsilkrobe,andhissubjectswererequiredtobowdowntothemonarch;themonarchwascalled"Lord"andwasworshipedasagod.DiocletianclaimedtobetheincarnationofJupiter.Theimperialpowerhasreacheditslimit.In286,DiocletianawardedGeneralMaximianthetitleof"Augustus"andappointedhimtheco-emperorofthewesternpartoftheempire.In287,thecommanderoftheBritishFleet,Karlusius,rebelledandclaimedtheemperor,occupyingthenorthwestofBritainandGaul.Itwassettledin296.In288,DiocletiansuccessfullyconsolidatedtheEuphratesRiverdefenselineandwasawardedthetitleof"PersianConqueror"bytheSenate.Inthesameyear,heledhisarmybackwestfromAntioch,Syria,andwenttotheDanubetoassistMaximianwhowasinGaul.In290,theGaulsuppressionbanditendedandonceagainwenttoSyriatosuppresstherebellionoftheArabnomads.In291,repelledthenativeswhoinvadedtheempireintheupperreachesoftheNile.In292,hereturnedtotheDanubeandrepelledthenorthernGermanicbarbarianSalmatianswhohadgoneacrossHenan.In293,Diocletianfirstbegantoimplementthe"fouremperorsco-governancesystem",asfollows:

Title

Emperor’sname

Capital

District

Thefirstroundoffouremperorsco-governance

Direction
EasternEmpire	Augustus(EmperorZheng)	Diocletian	NicoMedea	AsiaMinor,Syria,PalestineandEgypt
Caesar(ViceEmperor)	Galerius	Belgradenearb>	DanubeSouthoftheDanubePannoniAsia、Mercia、ThraceandBalkanPeninsula
WesternEmpire	Augustus(TheEmperor)	Maximian	Milan	SouthoftheUpperDanube,Corsica,Sardinia,SicilyIsland,Algeria,TunisiaandLibya
Caesar(ViceEmperor)	ConstantiusI	Trier	Britain、Gaul

Diocletianstipulated:thetwoAugustus(primeemperor)intheeastandwestoftheempireeachappointaCaesar(deputyemperor),andAugustusreigned20yearslaterMustabdicate,succeededbytheoriginaltwoCaesarsasAugustus,andappointaCaesareach.Theimplementationofthefouremperors'co-governanceisnottodividetheempireintofourparts,buttoentrustthedefenseoftheempiretothefouremperors.Diocletian'spositionisstillthehighestamongthefour.

Diocletianfirstreducedthesizeoftheprovinces,dividedabout100provinces,andestablishedadministrativeregionstocommandmorethanadozenprovinces,andthelocalgovernorsdidnotholdmilitaryposts.Diocletianreformedthemilitaryanddividedthearmyintofrontierguardsandfieldforces.Thefrontierguardswereusedtoresistforeignenemyinvasions,andthefieldtroopswereusedtosuppresspeople'suprisingsandmilitarymutinies,aswellasmobileoperationsagainstlarge-scaleforeignenemies.Healsoreducedthesizeofthecorpsandincreasedthenumberofcorpsfordispatch.SinceDiocletiandividedtheempire,eachemperorhadalargenumberofsoldiers,whichgreatlyincreasedtheeconomicburdenoftheempire.Therefore,Diocletianfirstimplementedthenewtaxsystem,changedthecurrencysystem,adjustedprices,andpromulgatedthe"PriceOrder",buttheywerenotsuccessful.In297,Diocletian'sco-rulerGaleriusinvadedSassanidPersia,andin298,heoccupiedTessifon.In299,apeacetreatywasconcludedwithSassanidPersia,andRomegainedcontrolofnorthernMesopotamiaandArmenia.AfterDiocletianreignedfor20years,heabdicatedin305,whileMaximianalsoabdicated.

ConstantineI,whotookthethroneasAugustusinthewest,diedjustoverayearafterhereignedinBritain.HissonConstantineI(i.e.ConstantinetheGreat)Ascendedtothethronewiththesupportofthearmy.WhenConstantineIcametothethrone,heonlyoccupiedBritainandGaul.Italy,SpainandNorthAfricawerecontrolledbyMaximian’ssonMaxentius.In312,hedefeatedMaxentiusandunifiedthewest.

Intheeast,afterthedeathofAugustusGaleriusin311,Lisini,whoascendedthethrone,defeatedDeya,whooccupiedEgyptandpartoftheAsianterritories,andunifiedtheeast.In313,ConstantineIandLisiniissuedthe"MilanEdict"declaringChristianitylegal.In314,thetwoclashesbrokeout.LiXiniwasdefeatedandforcedtoabandontheEuropeanregionexceptThrace.In323,thetwofoughtagain,LiXinniwasdefeated,andConstantineIbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.

ZTEandtransformation

_{Mainentry:ConstantineDynasty}

WhenConstantineIcametothethrone,hewasexhaustedallovertheempire.HeadoptedamethodsimilartoDiocletianandappointedhisthreesons,ConstantineIIandConstantine.TiusIIandConstantineIwerepartofCaesar’srulingempires:ConstantinetheGreatruledtheBalkansandtheBlackSea,ConstantineIIruledSpain,GaulandBritain,ConstantineTheusIIruledtheEastandEgypt,andConstantineIruledItalyandAfrica.ConstantineIreformedtheadministrativedivisionsanddividedthecountryintofourmajoradministrativeregions,oneundertheadministrativedistrict,andthenundertheprovince.Ontheeconomicside,Diocletian’spolicywascontinued,whichstipulatedoccupationalhereditary,fixedpeasantsontheland,andpromulgatedlawstoreaffirmthestatusofslaveowners.Intermsofmilitaryaffairs,theguardswereabolishedandreplacedbythePaladinCavalryGuards,andalargenumberofbarbarianswererecruitedintothearmy,whichcomprehensivelyimprovedthecombateffectivenessoftheRomanarmy.Heusedterrortoforceconscription,andthosewhorefusedtobecomeasoldiercouldbeputtodeath.Intermsofreligion,thefirstCouncilofNiceawasheldin325,whichdeterminedmanybasicChristiandoctrinesanddenouncedArianismasaheresy.AseriesofhisactionslaidthefoundationforthedominanceofChristianityinEuropeinthefuture.

Since324,ConstantineImadegreateffortstobuildthenewcapitalConstantinoplebesidetheBosphorus,knownasNewRome.Itwasinitiallycompletedin330years,anditsspecialgeographicalenvironmentandstrategicpositionwereanimportantreasonwhytheEasternRomanEmpiresurvivedthousandsofyears.In337,ConstantineIdiedandwasbaptizedbeforehisdeath.

AfterthedeathofConstantineI,theRomanEmpireimmediatelyfoughtforthethrone.ConstantineII,ConstantineI,andMagnentiuswerekilledoneafteranother.In353,ConstantiusIIbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.In361,Julian,theapostate,cousinofConstantiusII,rebelled.ConstantiusIIdiedonthewaytoconquerJulian,andJuliantookpower.UndertheinfluenceofNeo-Platonism,Julianimplementedananti-Christianpolicyafterheassumedthethroneandvigorouslysupportedpolytheism.HeaggressivelyattackedChristianity.Churcheswereburnedandlooted.Christiansweredrivenoutofthearmyandschools.HehimselfwroteabooktoattackChristianity.Ontheeconomicfront,Juliansucceededinstoppinginflation.Military,hedefeatedtheGermansandinvadedthePersianSassaniddynasty.In363,Julianwaskilledinbattle,andtheascendedJoviancancelledJulian'santi-Christianpolicy.

Decline

_{Mainentry:ValentinianDynasty}

In364,Joviandied(probablyduetofoodpoisoning),DanubeofficerValentinianIwasmadeemperorbythearmy,andthenheappointedhisbrotherValenceasthecommunistpartyintheeasternpartoftheempire.Ruletheemperor.ValentinianIgarrisonedMilan,ValencegarrisonedConstantinople.In376,ValentinianIdiedandValentinianIIascendedthethrone.In378,ValencewaskilledinabattleagainsttheGothsinAdrianople,andtheempirewasgovernedbyGratianandTheodosiusI.WhenGratiandiedin383,TheodosiusImadepeacewiththeGoths,allowingthemtosettleintheterritory,jointhearmyandserveasofficials.In388,hedefeatedtheusurpersMagnusMaximusandFlavius​​Victorinthewest.In392,ValentinianIIdied(possiblyhangedhimself)inhispalaceinViena,southeastofGaul.

_{Mainentry:TheodosiusDynasty}

In393,TheodosiusIdeclaredChristianitythestatereligion,andopposedallpaganismandheresy,closedpolytheistictemples,andbuiltanewChristianchurch.HebelievedthattheancientOlympicsviolatedChristiandoctrinesandwasanactivityofpagans,soheannouncedtheabolitionoftheancientOlympics.In394,TheodosiusIdefeatedEugenius,theusurperinthewest,andbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.ThiswasalsothelastreunificationoftheRomanEmpireaftermanydivisionsofeastandwest.Thisyear,thepopulationunderRomanrulemaybearound56million.In395,TheodosiusIdiedinMilan.Heonceagaindividedtheempireintotwoparts,theeastparttotheeldestsonArcadius,andthewestparttotheyoungestsonHornorius.

ThedisintegrationandcollapseoftheWesternRomanEmpire

_{Mainentry:TheWesternRomanEmpiresub>}

Afterthe5thcentury,thewaveofEuropeanmigrationreachedapeak.Alaric,theleaderoftheVisigoths,constantlyinvadedtheRomanEmpireunderthestrongpressureoftheHuns,anomadicnationinNortheastAsia.Inthewinterof405,theAlliedforcesofAlaricandtheHunsbrokethroughtheimperialRhineline.Romehadnoeffectiveresistance,whichwasequivalenttogivingupmostofGaul.In407,theGeneralConstantineIIIstationedinBritainrebelled.TheWesternRomanEmperorHonoriustriedtogetAlarictoattackConstantineIII.Alaricdemanded4,000poundsofgoldasaprice.Uthagreed.Later,asHornoriusbrokehispromise,AlaricandtheHunsinvadedItaly,andHornoriusfledfromMilantoRavenna.AlaricwentsouthandsurroundedRome.

Atthistime,famineandplaguebrokeoutinRome.TheSenatehadtomakepeacewithAlaricandhandedover5,000poundsofgold,30,000poundsofsilver,andmanyvaluablesandtreasures.In409,thecoalitionofAlaricandtheHunssurroundedRomeforthesecondtimeanderectedapuppetemperor,andHornorius,whowashuddledinRavenna,retainedthethronewiththesupportoftheEasternRomanEmpire.In410,AlaricandtheHunssurroundedRomeforthethirdtime,andeventuallydefeatedit.Thecoalitionforceslootedthecityforthreedaysandreturnedwithgreatresults,whileRomesufferedadevastatingblow.Inthesameyear,alltheRomanlegionsstationedinBritainwithdrew,announcingtheendofRomanruleoverBritain.

Inthefollowingtenyears,theco-emperorConstantiusIIIofHonoriusbecamethemilitaryheadoftheempire,andtheempirewasstableforaperiodoftime.In418,theVisigothickingdomwasestablishedintheprovinceofAquitaineandthecapitalToulouse.ThiswasthefirstbarbariankingdomestablishedintheWesternRomanEmpire.In423,Honoriusdied,ValentinianIIIascendedthethrone,andhismotherGalaPlacidiawastheregent.

In439,theKingdomofVandal-AranwasestablishedinNorthAfrica,thecapitalofCarthage,andestablisheditsownnavy,constantlyattackingtheWesternRomanEmpirefromthesea.In451,theHungarianleaderAttilaledaninvasion,andwasrepelledbythefamousempire,Aetius,theVisigothicKingdomandotherGermans.Sincethen,Aetiushasrepeatedlyrepelledthebarbarianattacks.In454,PetroniusMaximuscolludedwithministerstofalselyaccuseAetiusofrebellion,andValentinianIIIbelievedittobetrueandmurderedAetiusinthepalace.Later,MaximuscolludedwithsoldierstomurderValentinianIIIandproclaimedhimselfemperor.In455,theleaderoftheVandals,Geselik,andtheHunstookadvantageofthechaostoinvadeRome.Maximuswaskilledandthecitywaslootedagain.

Sofar,theWesternRomanEmpirehasbeenunabletomaintain,onlylingering.Theeightlateremperorswereallpuppets,andtherealpowerwasinthehandsofbarbaricgenerals.Duringthe16yearsofLichmel’srule,Avitus,Mayorian,andLibiusSeveruswereabolished,andEmperorAntemius,whohadbeenerectedbytheEasternEmperor,waskilled,andAulibriuswasestablishedseparately.WhenGondobadwasinpower,hehelpedLiserius.In475,OrestmadehissonRomulusIIemperor.In476,thebarbariangeneralOdoacrebelledagainstOrest,deposedRomulusAugustus,declaredallegiancetotheEasternRomanEmperorZeno,andtransferredthepoweroftheWesternRomanEmpiretotheEasternRomanEmpire.Atthispoint,theWestThefalloftheRomanEmpire.ThedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpiremarkedthecollapseofslaveryinWesternEurope,andthehistoryofWesternEuropehassinceopenedanewpage.

Germanickingdoms

AfterthedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpire,theinvadingGermansestablishedsuccessivelyontheterritoryoftheWesternRomanEmpireTenkingdoms.In489,Theodoric,theleaderoftheOstrogoths,withthesupportoftheEasternRomanEmperorZeno,crossedtheAlpsandinvadedtheApennines.In493,TheodoricoccupiedRavenna,killedOdoac,establishedtheEasternGothicKingdom,andbecamethegovernoroftheEasternRomanEmpireinItaly.Infact,EasternRomedidnothavetheabilitytorestrainTheodoric.Throughaseriesofmarriages,TheodoricformedallianceswithotherGermanickingdoms.In534,theEasternRomanemperorJustinianIdestroyedtheVandalKingdom.In553,theEasternGothicKingdomwasdestroyed.In568,theLombardscrossedtheAlpsfromthenorth,invadedtheApenninesandestablishedtheLombardKingdom.In572,Paviawasestablishedasthecapital.EasternRomeonlyretainedRavennaandsomefragmentedterritoriesinsouth-centralItaly.In751,RavennawasoccupiedbytheLombards.In774,KingCharlestheGreatoftheFrankishKingdomdestroyedtheLombardKingdom.

b>FranceNorthern,GermanyWestern,post-expansion

ThekingdomestablishedbytheGermans(486years)

Countryname	Englishname	Location
EasternGothicKingdom	Ostrogoth	Pannonia、Mercia,thenenterItaly
FrankKingdom	Frank	now
TheKingdomofBurgundy	Bourgogne	TodayFranceSoutheast
VisigothKingdom	Visigoth	IberianPeninsulaMostoftoday'ssouthwesternFrance
SovietHuiKingdom	SuebiorSuevi	IberiaNorthwestofthepeninsula
TheKingdomofVandal-Aran	Vandals-Alan	nowTunisiaMost,AlgeriaandLibyapartofthecoastalland area,Initsheyday,MediterraneanSeaSomeislands
KingdomofLombard(Afterthemid-6thcentury)	Lombardy	TodayAustria,NorthernItaly
Anglo-SaxonKingdoms	Anglo-Saxon	BritainSouthwestern
HruliKingdom	Heruli	Austriatoday
AlemanniKingdom	Alamanni,AllemanniorAlemanni	TodaySwitzerland,SouthernGermany

EmpireSuccession

• EasternRomanEmpire(ByzantineEmpireb>)

AfterthedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpire,theEasternRomanEmpirebecametheactualsuccessoroftheRomanEmpire.In1453,Constantinople,thecapitaloftheEasternRomanEmpire,wascapturedbytheOttomanSultanMuhammadII.In1460,theterritoryoftheEasternRomanEmpireinMoriawasoccupiedbytheOttomanEmpire.In1461,theOttomanEmpiredestroyedtheTrabzonEmpire.Atthispoint,theEasternRomanEmpirewithdrewfromthestageofhistoryforever.

• CharlemagneEmpire

In800,PopeLeoIIIcrownedCharlemagne,KingoftheCarolingiandynastyoftheFrankishKingdom,asthe"EmperoroftheRomans"inRome,andrecognizedtheCharlemagneEmpireasthesuccessoroftheRomanEmpire.In843,thethreesonsofCharlemagneandLouisthePioussignedtheTreatyofVerdun,whichsplittheempireintothreeparts.

• HolyRomanEmpire

TheHolyRomanEmpireandtheRomanEmpireareactuallynotdirectandlegalRelationship.In962,KingOttoIoftheEastFrankishKingdomwascrownedtheEmperoroftheRomanEmpirebyPopeJohnXIIinRome,andtheHolyRomanEmpirerecognizedtheHolyRomanEmpireasthesuccessoroftheWesternRomanEmpire.Later,theEasternRomanEmpirealsorecognizeditsstatus.Until1806,theFrenchemperorNapoleonIorderedFranzIIoftheHabsburgdynastytoabandonthetitleofHolyRomanEmperoronAugust6,andonlyretainthetitleofAustrianEmperor.TheHolyRomanEmpirewasdisintegratedintotheAustrianEmpire,theRhineConfederation,etc.,proclaimingdisintegration.

• RussianEmpire

In1472,IvanIIIoftheGrandDuchyofMoscowmarriedEastRomeSophia,thenieceofConstantineXI,thelastemperoroftheempire,declaredthatshehadinheritedtheEasternRomanorthodoxyandintroducedthestatereligionofEasternRomeintohercountry.Tothisday,RussiaisstillthecenteroftheglobalOrthodoxChurch.

In1547,GrandDukeIvanIVwascrownedbytheOrthodoxArchbishopMakkariandproclaimedtheemperor,becomingRussia'sfirsttsar.Theword"Czar"comesfromtheLatin"Caesar",implyingitspureblood.Atthesametime,inordertoalwaysremindtheworldthattheyarethelegalheirsoftheEasternRomanEmpire,theycallthemselvesthe"ThirdRome"andaddthedouble-headedeaglelogousedbyEasternRometothenationalemblem.

In1721,CzarPeterIofRussiaacceptedthetitleof"EmperorofAllRussia"andcalledhimself"Emperor".TsaristRussiawasrenamedtheRussianEmpireuntilthefalloftheRevolutioninFebruary1917.

Provinces

ThefollowingtableliststheprovincesoftheRomanEmpirearound120yearsago.

Provincesaredividedintothreecategories:SenateProvince(managedbytheSenate),EmperorProvince(managedbytheEmperor),andLocalProvince(managedbythelocalfinanceofficerorgovernor).

b>b>b>b>b>

TheprovincesoftheRomanEmpire(around120years)

Chinesename	Latinname	Establishmentyear	Classification	Generalarea
AchaeaProvince	Achaea	Theprevious146years	TheSenateProvince	SouthernGreece,Peloponneseregion
Egyptprovinces	Aegyptus	Thefirst30years	Localprovinces	Egypt
AfricaProvince	Africa	Theprevious146years	TheSenateProvinces	Tunisia
AlpesCottiae	AlpesCottiae	Theprevious14years	Localprovinces	TheborderbetweenItalyandFrance
CoastalAlpes	AlpesMaritimae	Theprevious14years	Localprovinces	ItalyandFranceborder,neartheMediterraneanSea
AlpesPoenninae	AlpesPoenninae	Theprevious14years	Localprovinces	Switzerland-Franceborder
PetraProvinceofArabia	ArabiaPetraea	105years	EmperorProvince	Jordan,andsouthernSyria
AsianProvince	Asia	Thefirst129years	TheSenateProvince	EasternAsiaMinor
LowerArmeniaProvince	ArmeniaInferior	114years	EmperorProvince	EastCoastoftheBlackSea
AssyriaProvince	Assyria	116years	EmperorProvince	NorthernIraq
BittiNiagaraProvince	Bithynia	Theprevious74years	TheEmperor'sProvince	NorthwestAsiaMinorb>
BritishProvince	Britannia	43years	Emperor'sProvince	Will,England
CappadociaProvince	Cappadocia	17years	EmperorProvince	EasternAsiaMinor
CiliciaProvince	Cilicia	Thefirst64years	TheEmperor'sProvince	SouthernAsiaMinor
KomageniProvince	Commagene	72years	EmperorProvince	SoutheastAsiaMinor
CordueneProvince	Corduene	Theprevious66years	TheEmperor'sProvince	KurdishRegion
TheprovincesofCorsicaandSardinia	CorsicaetSardinia	Thefirst231years	LocalProvinces	Corsica,Sardinia
CreteandCyrenaicaprovinces	CretaetCyrenaica	First30years	TheSenateProvince	Crete,northeasternLibya
ProvinceofCyprus	Cyprus	Theprevious58years	TheSenateProvince	Cyprus
DaciaProvince	Dacia	105years	EmperorProvince	Romania
DalmatiaProvince	Dalmatia	Previous32years	EmperorProvince	SouthernCroatia
EpirusProvince	Epirus	Thefirst146years	Localprovinces	WesternGreece
GalatianProvince	Galatia	first25years	EmperorProvince	Anatolia
GalliaAquitania	GalliaAquitania	87yearsago	EmperorProvince	CentralandSoutheasternFrance
BelgiumGaulProvince	GalliaBelgica	Top57Year	TheEmperor'sProvince	Belgium
LyonGaulProvince	GalliaLugdunensis	Theprevious87years	EmperorProvince	CentralandNorthernFrance
GalliaNarbonensis	GalliaNarbonensis	Theprevious118years	SeniorYuanProvince	SouthofFrance
LowerGermania	GermaniaInferior	90years	EmperorProvince	Netherlands
UpperGermania	GermaniaSuperior	90years	EmperorProvince	TheborderofFrance,GermanyandSwitzerland
SpainProvinceofBetica	HispaniaBaetica	14years	SeniorSenateProvince	SouthofSpain
SpainProvinceofLusitania	HispaniaLusitania	14years	EmperorProvince	Portugal
SpainProvinceofTarragona	HispaniaTarraconensis	Previous27years	EmperorProvince	MostofSpain
Italy	Italia	/	Native	Italy
JewishProvince	Iudaea	Thefirst63years	TheEmperor'sProvince	Israel
LikeniaProvince	Lycaonia	Thefirst64years	EmperorProvince	Anatolia
LyciaProvince	Lycia	43years	SeniorYuanProvince	SouthernAsiaMinor
MacedoniaProvince	Macedonia	Theprevious146years	ProvinceofSenateHospital	Macedonia
CaesareaProvinceofMauritania	MauretaniaCaesariensisp>	40years	LocalProvinces	NorthwestAlgeriaMinistry
TingitanaMauritania	MauretaniaTingitana	40years	Localprovinces	NorthernMorocco
MisiaProvince	Moesia	Thefirst29years	TheEmperor'sProvince	TheSouthBankoftheDanube
NorrickProvince	Noricum	Previous16years	EmperorProvince	Austria
NumidiaProvince	Numidia	Thefirst25years	TheEmperor'sProvince	NortheastCoastofAlgeria
OsloneProvince	Osroene	116years	Localprovinces	NorthernSyria
PannoniaProvince	Pannonia	20years?	EmperorProvince	Hungary
PamphyliaProvince	Pamphylia	Thefirst25years	Emperor'sProvince	SouthwestAsiaMinor
ThisAllprovinces	Pontus	Thefirst64years	EmperorProvince	NorthernAsiaMinor
RhetiaProvince	Raetia	15years	TheEmperor'sProvince	MostofSwitzerland
ProvinceofSicily	Sicilia	First241years	TheSenateProvince	Sicily
SofinaProvince	Sophene	Theprevious89years	TheEmperor'sProvince	Armenia
ProvincesofSyria	Syria	Thefirst64years	EmperorProvince	MostofSyria
TauricaProvince	Taurica	1stcentury	TheEmperor'sProvince	NorthShoreoftheBlackSea
ThraceProvince	Thrace	46years	EmperorProvince	NorthernGreece,SouthernBulgaria

Culture

Language

LatinistheRomanEmpireTheofficiallanguageisalsothelocallanguageoftheItalianregion.Duringtheimperialperiod,Latinwasdividedintoatleasttwocategories:classicalLatinandpopularLatin.ClassicalLatinisusedasawrittenlanguage,whilepopularLatinisgenerallyusedasaspokenlanguage.ClassicalLatinisverystableandhasnotchangedfromtheimperialperiodtotheMiddleAges.PopularLatinhasdialectsinallpartsoftheempire,withmanychanges,graduallyevolvingintoRomancelanguages.

AlthoughLatinistheofficiallanguageoftheempire,Greekisoneofthemainlanguages​​oftheempire,especiallyintheeasternprovincesoftheempire.EveninRome,Greekhasbecomethelanguageofeducationandtheupperclasslanguage.Greekisacommonlyusedlanguageinthefieldsofreligion(Christianity),science,andart.

Inthe4thcentury,Greekgraduallylostpowerinthewesternpartoftheempire,andLatinprevailed.Intheearly5thcentury,thepublicationofthestandardLatintranslationoftheBiblereflectedthissituation.TheWesternRomanEmpirealsograduallybegantorejectpeoplewhocouldspeakGreek.Thisresultedinaculturalsplitbetweentheeasternandwesternpartsoftheempire.GreekhasbeentheofficiallanguageoftheEasternRomanEmpiresince610.

Otherlanguages​​suchasAramaic,Coptic,Armenian,etc.arealsospokenintheempire.

NaturalScience

PlinytheElder(23-79),authorof37volumesof"NaturalHistory",whichcoversallaspectsofscienceatthattime,involvingastronomy,geography,Biology,medicine,agriculture,minerals,etc."NaturalHistory"waswrittenonthebasisofPlinytheElder'smanyyearsofreadingandreadingnotes.Thebookisnotclassifiedandrathermessy.Thegreatestachievementof"NaturalHistory"isthatitrecordsmorethan20,000variousthingsandextractsvariousdocuments.Therearemorethan2,000kinds,sothatmanypreciousscientificrecordsofthetimehavebeenpasseddown.Itisanextremelyrareencyclopediaworkinancienttimes.

Agriculture

TheSpanishColumella,authorof"AgriculturalTheory"in12volumes,talksaboutagriculturalandanimalhusbandrytechnologyandmanagementaswellassocialeconomy.ThisbookThebookhadagreatinfluenceonthemedievalmanor.

Medicine

ThefamousdoctorCelsusintheperiodofEmperorTiberius(30-45yearsago),authorof"MedicalEncyclopedia"8volumesAmongthem,volumes7-8recordmanyoperations,andtheyaredescribedindetail.Galen(129-199),afamousdoctorintheperiodofEmperorMarcoAurelius,servedasanimperialphysicianformanyyearsandwrotequiteafew.Galenusedmonkeyanatomytoinferthestructureofthehumanbody,creatingaprecedentinanatomy.Galenalsoputforwardthetheoryof"threeauras",namely"vitalityaura","naturalaura"and"soulaura"toexplainthephysiologicalmechanismofthehumanbody.Galen'spharmacybookintroducedvariousmedicinalmaterials,about820species,includinganimals,plantsandminerals.Galen’stheorywasregardedasaclassicbytheWestintheMiddleAgesandbecamethemainreferencematerialforAvicennauntilHarveyproposedthetheoryofbloodcirculationinthe17thcentury.

Astronomy

TheEgyptianastronomerPtolemy(85-168),authorof13volumesof"Astronomy".ThebookcollectsthemasterpiecesofancientGreco-Romanastronomy.Thebookusesageometricsystemtodescribethemotionofcelestialbodies,andhasastarmapincluding1022stars,whichisextremelycompleteinancienttimes.Inaddition,thebookalsodiscussesthecalculationofthecalendar,thecalculationoftheeclipseofthesunandthemoon,theproductionanduseofastronomicalinstruments,andsoon.However,becausePtolemybelievedinthe"geocentrictheory",inordertomakethistheorystand,hedesignedanextremelycomplexcelestialgeometrysystemtosolvesomeproblemsthatthecalculationsofthegeocentrictheorydidnotmatchthereality,andtheresultsofthecalculationswereroughlysimilartotheactualobservations.BeforeCopernicusproposedthe"heliocentrictheory",Ptolemy'sdoctrinewasdominantinEurope.

Geography

Strabo(64-23yearsago),authorof"Geography"in17volumes.The"knownworld"oftheRomansatthattimeisdescribedindetail,includingallpartsofEurope,WestAsiaandNorthAfrica,involvingthephysicalandhumangeographyofvariousplaces.Thebookalsodiscussestheimpactoftheenvironmentontheeconomiclifeofvariousplacesandthestudyofcities..Beforethegreatdiscoveryofgeography,thisbookwasthemostdetailedgeographyworkintheWest.

Historiography

ThehistorianoftheOctavianperiod,LiWei(59-17yearsago),authorof"HistoryofRomeSincetheFoundingoftheCity"142volumes,36volumescurrentlyinexistence,narratinglegendsRomulusinChinaestablishedthecityofRometo9yearsofhistory.ItisthefirstgeneralhistoryofWesternhistoriography.

Taxito(55-120years),authorof12volumesof"History",mainlynarratingthehistoryoftheFlaviandynasty(69-96).Tacitusispoliticallyinclinedtorepublicans,andisextremelyopposedtotheemperorandauthoritarianrule.Inaddition,thereare"BiographyofAgulikola","Germania","Orator'sDialogue"and"Chronicle"andotherworkshandeddown,allofwhichhaveextremelyhighhistoricalandliteraryvalue.

Suvitonius(approximately69-122yearslater),whoselifeinformationismainlyderivedfromPlinytheYounger’s"Letters",authorof"TheTwelveEmperorsofRome",withbiographyTheformdescribesthetwelvemonarchsatthebeginningoftheRomanEmpire,focusingonportrayinganecdotes,butthehistoriographylacksseriousness.

Appian(about95-about165),authorof"HistoryofRome".ThetopbeganintheeraofRomankings,andthebottomendedintheperiodofEmperorTrajanatthebeginningofthe2ndcentury,coveringnearly900yearsofhistory.

ArianofNicomedea,authorof"Alexander'sExpedition",isthemostdetailedbiographyofAlexandertheGreatinexistence.

AmianusMarcelinus(330-395),Antiochian,authorof"HistoryoftheLateRomanEmpire",narratingthebeginningoftheAntoniandynastyin1996to378ThehistoryofEmperorValence'sdefeatin1year.Thelast18volumesofthebook,namelyvolumes14-31,recordthehistoryoftheRomanEmpirefrom354to378.Thefirst13volumesarebasicallyexcerptsfromotherexistinghistoricalbooks;thenext18volumesaremainlythehistoryexperiencedbytheauthorhimself,sothecontentisdetailedandthewritingisvivid.Itisthemostimportantprimitivehistoricalbookaboutthelateclassicaleraandtheearlynationalmigration.Becausetheauthorisanexperiencedprofessionalmilitaryofficer,thedescriptionofthewarinthebookisparticularlyoutstanding,anditisrecognizedasthebestclassicalmilitaryhistoryworksinceCaesar.

ScienceofLaw

Thesecond-centuryjuristGayo,authorofTheLadderofLaw.

Inthethirdcentury,juristscompiledtheGregorianCodeandtheHermogonianCode,whichpreservedalargenumberofedictsanddecreesoftheemperor.Romanlawhasaprofoundimpactontheformulationoflawsinmodernsociety.Thelawsofcivillawcountries,suchasdebtlawandpropertylaw,allhavetheshadowofRomanlaw.

Architecture

Theamphitheater(alsoknownastheColosseumandColosseum),builtintheFlavianDynasty,hasthreearchesandcanholdtensofthousandsPeoplearetheplacewheregladiatorialperformancesareheld.Complexundergroundfacilitiesarebuiltforgladiatorialperformances,andwatercanevenbeusedfornavalbattleperformances.

TheArcdeTriomphealsooriginatedinRomeandwasbuiltfortheemperor’striumph.TherearethreetriumphalarchesintheancientcityofRome.OnewasbuiltbyTitusin71,onewasbuiltbySeverusin203,andtheotherwasbuiltbyConstantinetheGreatin315,withexquisitereliefs.

Literature

Reference:AncientRomanLiterature

Virgil,apoetintheOctavianperiod(70yearsago-19yearsago),wrote10earlyworks"Pastoral",mainlysingingpastorallife.Inthefirst29years,Virgilpublished4volumesof"IdyllicPoems"(alsotranslated"AgriculturalPoems"),whichmainlytalkedaboutagriculturalproductionandalsosangtheidyllicscenery.Thefirstvolumeisaboutgrowingcrops,thesecondvolumeisaboutgrowingfruittrees,thethirdvolumeisaboutraisinglivestock,andthefourthvolumeisaboutraisingbees.Inhislateryears,hewrotetheepic"Aeneas"(alsotranslatedas"Iniat")in12volumes,narratingthestoryoftheRomanmythologicalheroAeneaswhoescapedfromTroyandcametoItalyandbecameking.

ThepoetHorace,authorof"Anthem",singsthepraisesofOctavian.

Ovid(43-14yearsago),famousforlovepoems,becamefamousas"LoveSongs"with49poemsin3volumes.Itisacollectionoflovepoems.Heisalsotheauthorof21"LadiesLetters",whichisaloveletterwrittenbyOvidbasedonthemythologyoftheheroineinthelovestory.Ovid's"Kamasutra"wassentencedtoexileintheBlackSearegionbecauseitviolatedOctavian'spolicyof"clarifyingcustoms".Ovid'srepresentative,asalongpoem"TheMetamorphosis,"waswrittenapproximatelyduringtheexileperiod.Itrewrittenmanymythsandlegends.Theplotischangeable,theimaginationispeculiar,anditisbetterthanpsychologicaldescription.

Philosophy

TheNeo-Stoicphilosophyprevailedduringtheimperialperiod.ThemainphilosophersareSenecaandEmperorMarcoAurelius,whopreachedfatalismandasceticism.

Seneca(from4to65yearsago),EmperorNero’steacher,believedthatthepurposeofphilosophywastoleadpeopletovirtueandadvocatedrestrainingdesireandpursuingmorality.However,Senecahimselfdidnotagreewithwhathesaidandmadeafortune.EmperorMarcoOlekepta"MeditationRecord",advocatingpatienceandrestraint.

Afterthecrisisofthethirdcentury,Neo-Platonismconcentratedonthemysticismofthetime.RepresentativesincludePlotinusandProklo.TocallGodtheoriginoftheworldisanabsolutelyinfiniteexistenceandcannotbeknown;andthehumanbodyistheoriginofsin,andhumansmustgetridofthefleshinordertocommunicatewithGodandobtainthetruth.Thisisthedoctrineof"theunityofmanandgod".

InChristianity,aninitialtheologycalled"thetheologyofthegodfather"appeared,andtherepresentativefigureisSt.Augustine.SaintAugustinewrote"OntheCityofGod","Confessions",etc.,incorporatingNeo-PlatonismintotheChristiandoctrine.Thepatristicphilosophyusesphilosophytodemonstratemanybasicdoctrinestoday,includingtheism,Trinitarianism,creationism,originalsintheory,redemptiontheory,heavenlytheory,andsoon.

Diplomacy

TheEurasiancontinentduringtheRomanEmpire(2photos)

Atthebeginning,Romeonlytradedanddiplomacywithsomesmallneighboringcountries,Therangeissmall.From138BCto119BC,EmperorWuoftheHanDynastysentZhangQiantotheWesternRegionstwiceandindirectlystartedtradewithRomethroughtheSilkRoad;BanchaointheEasternHanDynastydispatchedGanYingtoDaqin,butonlyreachedthePersianGulfandreturnedwithoutsuccess;Accordingtothe"BookoftheLaterHanDynasty",in166,KingAnDun(ieRomanEmperorMarcoAurelius)firstsentenvoystoLuoyang,thecapitalofHanDynasty,andpresentedgiftssuchasivoryandrhinohornfromEmperorHuanoftheHanDynasty(notconfirmed,itmaybeRomanBymerchants).Thetwosidesalsotransferredtheirownproductsandtechnologiestoeachother,whichpromotedtheexchangeofmaterialandspiritualcivilizationsbetweentheEastandtheWest,whichgreatlybenefitedthepeopleoftheEastandtheWest.TheHanDynastyusedsilk,tea,andporcelaininexchangeforgems,spices,medicinalmaterials,andglasswarefromRest,Greece,Rome,andMacedonia.RomanmerchantsalsotradedfamousproductssuchasChinesesilkinexchangeforOrientalgems,jadeite,kapok,andIndianrhinohornsandivory.

Military

_{Reference:RomanLegion}

Inthefirst29years,Octaviancarriedoutmilitaryreformsandestablishedastandingarmy.

ThemaintypesofarmsoftheRomanarmyareheavyinfantryandcavalry.TheRomanheavyinfantrywasmainlyequippedwithlances,daggers,largeshields,andarmor.Armorisgenerallymadeofcoppermetalsheetandleather,andtherearealsochainarmorandscalearmorinthelaterperiod.Inadditiontobasicequipment,thecavalryisalsoequippedwithabeautifullycraftedcopperhelmet.TheearlymetalequipmentoftheRomanarmywasgenerallymadeofbronze.

ThebasicunitoftheRomanarmyistheLegion,withauxiliarytroopsandmercenaries.Thereisacenturionunderthelegion,andthecaptainofthecenturioniscalledthecenturion.TheRomanarmyhadstrictdisciplineandrequiredsubordinatestoobeytheirsuperiorsabsolutely.Therearealsovariouspenaltiesinthearmy,andtheescapingarmywillbesubjecttothe"elevensmashingandkillinglaw,"thatis,onepersonoutoftenwillbeexecuted.InthelaterperiodoftheRomanEmpire,thearmywasmainlycomposedofbarbarians,withdepravedmilitarydisciplineandlowcombateffectiveness.

Economy

Agriculture

IntheeconomyoftheRomanEmpire,agriculturewasthemostimportant.Themainfoodcropoftheempirewaswheat,whichwasgrownthroughouttheempire,especiallytheeasternprovinces.Themaincashcropsoftheempireareolivesandgrapes,andtheMediterraneanregionisthemaincultivationareaforgrapesandolives.Theempireimportedalargeamountoffood,wine,andoilfromtheEasternProvinceeveryyear,andtheEasternProvincewasalsoanimportantsourceofimperialtaxes.Theempire’sagriculturalproductionefficiencywasnothigh,andthesecond-zonecroprotationwascommon,andtheuseofswing-rodstepplowsforarablelandwasalsomorecommonthantheuseofsplitplows.Theagriculturalindustryoftheempireconsistedmainlyoflarge-scalemanors,usingslavesorsubordinateagriculturallabor(whichflourishedafterthe3rdcentury),andsmallfarmers(self-cultivatingfarmers)almostdisappeared.Inthelaterperiodoftheempire,theseestatesseverelyaffectedthetaxesoftheempire.

Handicraft

ThecurrencyoftheRomanEmpire(22photos)

InthehandicraftindustryoftheRomanEmpire,potterymakingwasthemostimportant,becauseofthefoodandwinePotterymustbeusedforthetransportationofcommoditiessuchasoilandoil.TheItalianpotterycenterismainlyinPozzuoli.ThepotteryindustryinGaulisalsoverycompetitive,andtheGaulsalsoinventedthedouble-earedurn.TheminingindustryinSpainisverydevelopedandismonopolizedbythestate.Inthetextileindustry,Padua'swoolencloth,Spanishwoolcloak,andGaul'scoatwithahoodareallwell-known.Spainalsohasahandicraftindustryformakingfishsauce,whichisaseasoningmadefromfish.

Thelineageoftheemperors

TheemperorsoftheRomanEmpire(27-284yearsago)(54photos)

Theheadsystem

JuliaClaudiusdynasty

Reigning	Englishname p>	Chinesename	Remarks
Theprevious27-14years	Augustus	Octavian
14-37years	Tiberius	Tiberius
37-41years	Caligula	Caligula	OriginalnameGaiusCaesar,Caligulaisthenickname,whichmeans"littleboots" BeginthehabitoftheRomanemperortoproclaimhimselfagod Assassinated
41-54years	Claudius	Claudius	MaybethequeenLittleAgripinaPoisonedtodeath
54-68years	Nero	Nero	Suicide

TheFourEmperorsCivilWar(TheYearoftheFourEmperors)

Present	Englishname	Chinesename	Remarks
68-69	Galba	Galba	MurderedbyOtto
69years	Otho	Otho	defeated,suicide
69years	Vitellius	Vitellius	Destroyedandexecuted

FlaviDynasty

InPlace	Englishname	中文名	备注
69年－79年	Vespasian	韦帕芗
79年－81年	Titus	提图斯	79年，维苏威火山爆发，埋没庞贝城
81年－96年	Domitian	图密善	被刺杀

安敦尼王朝

在位	英文名	中文名	备注
96年－98年	Nerva	涅尔瓦
98年－117年	Trajan	图拉真
117年－138年	Hadrian	哈德良
138年－161年	AntoninusPius	安敦尼·庇护
161年－180年	MarcusAurelius	马可·奥勒留	与维鲁斯为共治皇帝
161年－169年	LuciusVerus	路奇乌斯·维鲁斯	与马可·奥勒留为共治皇帝
175年	AvidiusCassius	阿维狄乌斯·卡西乌斯	篡位者，统治埃及和叙利亚 被一位百夫长所杀
177年－180年	Commodus	康茂德	与马可·奥勒留为共治皇帝
180年－192年	中毒后被一摔跤手掐死

193年内乱期

在位	英文名	中文名	备注
193年	Pertinax	佩蒂纳克斯	被士兵杀死
193年	DidiusJulianus	尤利安努斯	被近卫军杀死

塞维鲁王朝

在位	英文名	中文名	备注
193年－211年	SeptimiusSeverus	塞维鲁
193年－194年/195年	PescenniusNiger	奈哲尔	叙利亚的争位者
193年/195年－197年	ClodiusAlbinus	阿尔拜努斯	不列颠的争位者
198年－217年	Caracalla	卡拉卡拉	与盖塔为共治皇帝
209年－211年	Geta	盖塔	与卡拉卡拉为共治皇帝 被卡拉卡拉杀死
217年－218年	Macrinus	马克里努斯	与迪亚杜门尼安为共治皇帝 被处死
217年－218年	Diadumenian	迪亚杜门尼安	与马克里努斯为共治皇帝 被处死
218年－222年	Elagabalus	埃拉伽巴路斯	被刺杀
222年－235年	AlexanderSeverus	亚历山大·塞维鲁	被叛乱士兵杀死

三世纪危机高潮时的皇帝

在位	英文名	中文名	备注
235年－238年	MaximinusThrax	色雷斯人马克西米努斯	被军队杀害
238年	GordianI	戈尔迪安一世	与戈尔迪安二世为共治皇帝 自杀
238年	GordianII	戈尔迪安二世	与戈尔迪安一世为共治皇帝 阵亡
238年	PupienusMaximus	普皮恩努斯	与巴尔比努斯为共治皇帝 被近卫军杀死
238年	Balbinus	巴尔比努斯	与普皮努斯为共治皇帝 被近卫军杀死
238年－244年	GordianIII	戈尔迪安三世	被杀
240年	Sabinianus	萨宾尼亚努斯	自立为帝 战败
244年－249年	PhiliptheArab	阿拉伯人菲利普	被德基乌斯杀死
248年	Pacatianus	帕卡提亚努斯	自立为帝 被士兵杀死
248年	Iotapianus	伊奥塔皮亚努斯	争位者
248年	Silbannacus	希尔班纳库斯	篡位者
249年－251年	Decius	德基乌斯	阵亡
249年－252年	Priscus	普里斯库斯	在东部自立为帝
250年	Licinianus	李锡尼亚努斯	争位者
251年	HerenniusEtruscus	伊特鲁里亚的赫伦尼乌斯	阵亡
251年	Hostilian	霍斯蒂利安	与加卢斯为共治皇帝 死于瘟疫
251年－253年	Gallus	加卢斯	被士兵杀死
251年－253年	Volusianus	沃鲁西安努斯	与加卢斯为共治皇帝 被士兵杀死
253年	Aemilianus	埃米利安努斯	被士兵杀死
253年－260年	Valerian	瓦勒良	与加里恩努斯为共治皇帝 出征波斯萨珊王朝战败，被俘
253年－260年	Gallienus	加里恩努斯	与瓦勒良为共治皇帝
260年－268年	被杀
260年	Saloninus	萨洛尼努斯	与加里恩努斯为共治皇帝 被杀
258年－260年	Ingenuus	因格努乌斯	自立者
260年	Regalianus	雷加里安努斯	自立者
260年－261年	MacrianusMajor	大马克里亚努斯	自立者 阵亡
260年－261年	MacrianusMinor	小马克里亚努斯	自立者 阵亡
260年－261年	Quietus	奎伊图斯	争位者
261年	MussiusAemilianus	穆斯乌斯·埃米利安努斯	自立者
268年	Aureolus	奥里奥路斯	自立者 向克劳狄二世投降

高卢帝国皇帝（260年-274年）(5张)

高卢帝国

在位	英文名	中文名	备注
260年－269年	Postumus	波斯杜穆斯	建立高卢帝国
269年	Laelianus	莱利阿努斯	自立为高卢帝国皇帝
269年	Marius	马里乌斯
269年－271年	Victorinus	维克托利努斯
270年－271年	Domitianus	多米提安努斯	自立为高卢帝国皇帝
271年－274年	TetricusI	泰特里库斯一世	向奥勒良投降，高卢帝国灭亡
273年－274年	TetricusII	泰特里库斯二世	与泰特里库斯一世为共治皇帝

伊利里亚诸帝

在位	英文名	中文名	备注
268年－270年	ClaudiusII	克劳狄二世	死于瘟疫
270年	Quintillus	昆提卢斯	与奥勒良为共治皇帝 自杀
270年－275年	Aurelian	奥勒良	被近卫军杀死
271年	Septimius	赛普蒂米乌斯	在达尔马提亚自立为帝 被士兵杀死
275年－276年	ClaudiusTacitus	克劳狄·塔西佗	病死或被杀
276年	Florianus	弗洛里安努斯	被杀
276年－282年	Probus	普罗布斯	被士兵杀死
280年	Saturninus	萨图尼努斯	自立为帝 被士兵所杀
280年	Proculus	普罗库鲁斯	争位者 被普罗布斯所杀
280年	Bonosus	博诺苏斯	自立为帝 被普罗布斯击败，自杀
282年－283年	MarcusAureliusCarus	马可·奥勒留·卡鲁斯	死因不明
283年－285年	Carinus	卡里努斯	与努梅里安为共治皇帝 被杀
283年－284年	Numerian	努梅里安	与卡里努斯为共治皇帝

罗马帝国皇帝2(29张)

君主制

四帝共治

在位	英文名	中文名	备注
284年－305年	Diocletian	戴克里先	与马克西米安同为奥古斯都，掌管东部
286年－305年	Maximian	马克西米安	与戴克里先同为奥古斯都，掌管西部 被迫自杀
305年－311年	Galerius	伽列里乌斯	与君士坦提乌斯一世同为恺撒 305年，成为奥古斯都，掌管东部 与塞维鲁斯为共治皇帝
305年－306年	ConstantiusIChlorus	君士坦提乌斯一世	与伽列里乌斯同为恺撒 305年，成为奥古斯都，掌管西部 与伽列里乌斯为共治皇帝
306年－307年	SeverusII	塞维鲁斯（塞维鲁二世）	305年，成为恺撒 306年，成为奥古斯都，掌管西部 与伽列里乌斯为共治皇帝
306年－312年	Maxentius	马克森提乌斯	306年，自立为皇帝 被君士坦丁一世打败并废黜
308年－324年	Licinius	李锡尼	308年，成为奥古斯都 324年，被君士坦丁一世打败，被迫退位后被杀
308年	DomitiusAlexander	多米提乌斯·亚历山大	自立为帝
310年－313年	MaximinusDaia	马克西米努斯·代亚	305年，成为恺撒，掌管东部 310年，自立为奥古斯都，与李锡尼分治东部 自杀
316年－317年	ValeriusValens	瓦莱里乌斯·瓦伦斯	与李锡尼为共治皇帝 被君士坦丁一世处死
324年	Martinianus	马提尼安努斯	324年，成为奥古斯都，掌管西部 与李锡尼为共治皇帝 被杀

不列颠帝国皇帝（286年-296年）(2张)

不列颠帝国

在位	英文名	中文名	备注
286年－293年	Carausius	卡劳修斯	建立不列颠帝国 被阿勒克图斯所杀
293年－296年	Allectus	阿勒克图斯	被君士坦提乌斯一世击败

君士坦丁王朝

在位	英文名	中文名	备注
306年－337年	ConstantineItheGreat	君士坦丁一世	原为四帝共治中的西帝，后击败其他诸帝，成为帝国唯一的统治者 第一位信仰基督教的皇帝
337年－340年	ConstantineII	君士坦丁二世	君士坦丁一世死后，国分为三，掌管西部 阵亡
337年－361年	ConstantiusII	君士坦提乌斯二世	君士坦丁一世死后，国分为三，掌管东部
337年－350年	Constans	君士坦斯一世	君士坦丁一世死后，国分为三，掌管中部 被马格嫩提乌斯所杀
350年－353年	Magnentius	马格嫩提乌斯	篡位者 自杀
350年	Vetriano	维特里亚诺	自立为帝
350年	Nepotianus	尼波提亚努斯	自立为帝
361年－363年	JuliantheApostate	背教者尤利安	出征波斯萨珊王朝阵亡 最后一位信仰罗马多神教的皇帝
363年－364年	Jovian	约维安	暴死

瓦伦蒂尼安王朝

在位	英文名	中文名	备注
364年－375年	ValentinianI	瓦伦提尼安一世	西帝 与瓦伦斯、格拉提安为共治皇帝
364年－375年	Valens	瓦伦斯	东帝 与瓦伦提尼安一世、格拉提安为共治皇帝
375年－378年	与格拉提安、瓦伦提尼安二世为共治皇帝 与哥特人作战战败，阵亡
365年－366年	Procopius	普罗科皮乌斯	篡位者 被瓦伦斯处死
367年－379年	Gratian	格拉提安	与瓦伦提尼安一世、瓦伦斯、瓦伦提尼安二世为共治皇帝
379年－383年	与狄奥多西一世、瓦伦提尼安二世为共治皇帝 被叛军所杀
375年－379年	ValentinianII	瓦伦提尼安二世	与瓦伦斯、格拉提安为共治皇帝
379年－392年	与格拉提安、狄奥多西一世为共治皇帝 自杀或被杀
383年－388年	MagnusMaximus	马格努斯·马克西穆斯	西部的篡位者 被狄奥多西一世杀死
386年－388年	FlaviusVictor	弗拉维乌斯·维克托	马格努斯·马克西穆斯之子 被狄奥多西一世杀死
392年－394年	Eugenius	欧根尼乌斯	西部的篡位者 阵亡

狄奥多西王朝

在位	英文名	中文名	备注
379年－392年	TheodosiusI	狄奥多西一世	与格拉提安、瓦伦提尼安二世为共治皇帝
392年－395年	统一帝国

西罗马帝国皇帝(16张)

西罗马帝国

在位	英文名	中文名	备注
395年－423年	Honorius	霍诺里乌斯	与君士坦提乌斯三世为共治皇帝
409年－415年	PriscusAttalus	普里斯库斯·阿塔卢斯	自立为帝
407年－411年	ConstantineIII	君士坦丁三世	争位者
409年－411年	ConstansII	君士坦斯二世	争位者
411年－413年	Jovinus	约维努斯	争位者
412年－413年	Sebastianus	塞巴斯蒂安努斯	争位者
421年	ConstantiusIII	君士坦提乌斯三世	与霍诺里乌斯为共治皇帝
423年－425年	Joannes	约翰尼斯	争位者
425年－455年	ValentinianIII	瓦伦提尼安三世	被杀
455年	PetroniusMaximus	佩特罗尼乌斯·马克西穆斯	被杀
455年－456年	Avitus	阿维图斯	被废
457年－461年	Majorian	马约里安	被废
461年－465年	LibiusSeverus	利比乌斯·塞维鲁	被废
467年－472年	Anthemius	安特米乌斯	被处死
472年	Olybrius	奥利布里乌斯
473年－474年	Glycerius	格利凯里乌斯	退位
474年－475年	JuliusNepos	朱利乌斯·尼波斯	退位
475年－480年	在达尔马提亚为帝 被杀
475年－476年	RomulusAugustulus	罗慕路斯·奥古斯都	被蛮族军队首领奥多亚克废黜