Psychological research

Definition

Psychologyfirstoriginatedfromphilosophy,andseparatedfromphilosophytoformanindependentresearchdiscipline.Itisthescienceofcognitionandanalysisofhumanself-thinkingandbehaviorpatterns,andstudyingthelawsofpsychologyandbehaviorofhowhumansperceiveexternalinformationandhowtoprocessinformationinternally.(Note:Ithasalwaysbeendifficultforthepsychologycommunitytogiveanaccurateconceptof"psychology".Thisismyunderstandingofmypredecessors'interpretationsinmymanyyearsofresearchinpsychology.Pleasecorrectmeifthereisanythinginappropriate.)

Theoriginofhistory

AncientChinesePsychologicalThoughts*ModernChinesePsychologyHistory*WesternPsychologyHistory*SovietPsychologyHistory*JapanesePsychologyHistory

ImportantPsychologicalSystemsandSchools:AssociativePsychology,ConstructivePsychology,WürzburgSchool,MotivationalPsychology,FunctionalPsychology,Psychoanalysis,NewPsychoanalysis,FreudGermanism,GestaltPsychology,GestaltPsychology,PavlovianTheory,ConnectionistPsychology,BehavioristPsychology,NewBehaviorism,InstigationPsychology,DynamicPsychology,SocialCulturalHistorySchool,TopologicalPsychology,GenevaSchool,PiagetSchool,CognitivePsychology,HumanisticPsychology,Phrenology,etc.

Organizations:InternationalFederationofPsychologicalSciences,InternationalAssociationofAppliedPsychology,InternationalAssociationofInterculturalPsychology,ChinesePsychologicalAssociation,ChineseSocialPsychologicalAssociation,etc.

Representativefigures

Confucius,Mozi,Mencius,Gaozi,Xunzi,HanFei,DongZhongshu,WangChong,LiuShao,FanZhen,WangAnshi,ErCheng,ChengHao,ChengYi,ZhuXi,WangShouren,WangTingxiang,LiZhi,WangFuzhi,YanYuan,LiuZhi,DaiZhen,WangQingren,GongZizhen,ChenDaqi,AiWei,TangYue,ZhangYaoxiang,WangJingxi,LuZhiwei,GuoYicen,GaoJuefu,XiaoXiaorong,PanShu,GuoRenyuan,SunGuohua,ChenLi,ZhouXiangeng,HuangYi,RuanJingqing,HuJinan,ZuoRenxia,​​ZhuZhixian,DingZan,CaoRichang,ZhangShuzu,LiuZhaoji,ChenYuanhui,LinChuanding,LiuFan,JingQicheng,LiuYingmao,YangGuoshu,AlexDodd,Hobbes,T.Descartes,R.Locke,J.Berkeley,G.Herbart,JFWeber,EHMuller,JPFechner,GTDarwin,C.Spencer,H.Helmholtz,H.vonGalton,F.SechenovWundt,W.Brentano,F.Ribo,T.-A.James,W.Hall,S.PavLoveEbbinghaus,H.Mueller,GEFreud,S.Bekhterev,BMBinay,A.YuanliangYujiroYane,P.Cartel,JMKulpe,O.MGermany,GHSpearman,CEMatsumotoYitaroTichenna,EBWoodworth,RSAdler,A.MaiDugu,W.Cannon,WBSondike,EL.Jung,CGWatson,JBKornilov,KHWalloon,HPHBiller,K.Wertheimer,M.Pieron,H.Hull,C.Kovka,K.Bartlett,FCPauline,EGLe,W.RubinsteinMoreno,JLRushley,KSLewin,K.Allport,FHSullivan,HSVigotskyPiaget,J.Allport,G.Murphy,G.Frome,E.Luria,APRogers,C.Eriksson,E.LeonJiefu,AHSkinner,BFGibson,JJMaslow,A.Eysenck,HJSimon,HAFestinger,L.Bandura,A.etc.

Mainworks

"XueJi","YueJi","CharacterHistory","ShenMiaoLun","GuanYinzi","PsychophysicalOutline","PhysiologicalPsychologyOutline","PrinciplesofPsychology","InterpretationofDreams","PsychologyTextbook","AnimalWisdom","IntroductiontoPsychoanalysis","PsychologyOutline","IntheViewofBehaviorists"PsychologyofHumanity","PsychologicalTypes","HumanBehavior","Children'sLanguageandThinking","Children'sPsychologyResearch","LectureNotesontheFunctionoftheTwoHemispheresoftheBrain","HumanAbility","HistoryofExperimentalPsychology"","GestaltPsychology","ThePurposefulBehaviorofAnimalsandHumans","PrinciplesofGestaltPsychology","ArtisticPsychology","TheSecondRevisedBinet-SimonTestInstructions","ExperimentalPsychology","TheBehaviorofOrganisms","NewApproachestoPsychoanalysis","EscapefromFreedom","PrinciplesofGeneralPsychology","FromActiontoThought","PrinciplesofBehavior:AnIntroductiontoBehavioralTheory","TheProblemofChineseCharacters","PrinciplesofEpistemologyofGenesis,HandbookofExperimentalPsychology,ScienceandHumanBehavior,InterpersonalTheoryofPsychiatry,DevelopmentofAdvancedMentalFunction,PatternsandGrowthofPersonality,OnHumanGrowth:ATherapist'sViewofPsychotherapy,"GeneralPsychology","ScientificPsychology","CognitivePsychology","Identity:AdolescentsandCrisis","HumanProblemSolving","PrinciplesofNeuropsychology","ActivityConsciousnessandIndividuality,"Chromaticity","EducationalPsychology","OutlineofWesternPsychologyHistory","WesternModernHistoryofPsychology","MethodsandTheoreticalIssuesofPsychology","HistoryofChinesePsychology","HistoryofChildPsychology","NewDevelopmentsinWesternPsychology",etc.

Category

ExperimentalPsychology

ExperimentalPsychology:Itistheearliestdevelopedbranchofpsychology.Itusesscientificexperimentalmethodstostudytheearlydevelopmentofscientificpsychology.Thosetraditionaltopics.Suchasfeelings,perceptions,learning,motivationandemotions.

CognitivePsychology

CognitivePsychology:Dedicatedtothestudyofhumanadvancedmentalprocesses,suchasmemory,reasoning,informationprocessing,language,problemsolving,decision-makingandcreativeactivities.Usescientificcreativemethodstoexplorethelawsofinternalpsychologicalactivities.

PersonalityPsychology

PersonalityPsychology:Studyingtheuniquepsychologicalcharacteristicsofindividualsandthestabilitycharacteristicsofindividualbehaviors,andalsoexploringthepsychologicalfactorsofpersonalityformationandmeasuringpersonalitycharacteristics.Evaluationandtraining.

SocialPsychology

SocialPsychology:Mainlystudiesinterpersonalbehaviorandthecontrolandinfluenceofsocialforcesonbehavior.

DevelopmentalPsychology

DevelopmentalPsychology:Researchontheoccurrenceanddevelopmentofpsychology.Generally,people’sentirelifecourseisusedastheresearchobjecttoexplorethedifferentpsychologicalcharacteristicsofpeopleatdifferentstagesofdevelopment,butbroadlyspeaking,italsoincludesanimalpsychology.

EducationalPsychology

EducationalPsychology:Aslongaswestudythepsychologicallawsintheprocessofteachingandlearning,wecanimproveeducationandteachinglevel,improveteachertrainingandacademicexaminations,andpromoteteachinginaccordancewiththeiraptitude.Cultivatestudents'healthypersonalityandcreativity.

CampusPsychology

Schoolpsychology:usuallyworkinginprimaryandsecondaryschools,vibratingandcounselingstudentswhohavelearningdifficulties,adjustmentdifficultiesorsomeproblembehaviorsinschool,andAssistparentsandteacherstosolveschool-relatedproblems.

Observationmethod:Amethodofsystematicallyobservingandrecordinghumanbehaviorinanaturalsituation,andthenanalyzingtherecordstodiscoverthelawsofmentalactivityanddevelopment.

Experimentalmethod:Amethodofobservingacertainbehaviororpsychologicalphenomenonundercontrolledconditions.Dividedintonaturalexperimentmethod(fieldexperiment)andlaboratoryexperimentmethod.

Researchmethod

*Experimentaldesign:laboratoryexperiment

*Psychophysicalmethod:naturalexperiment

*Observationmethod:self-observationMethod

*Introspectionmethod*Oralrecording*Questionnairemethod*Semanticdifferencemethod*Interviewmethod

*Filemethod(biographymethod):Theadvantagesofthefilemethodare:(1)YesThepsychologicalinterferenceoftheresearchobjectissmall;(2)suitableforcross-culturalcomparativeresearch;(3)suitablefortrendresearchwithalargetimespan.

*Simulationmethod

*Psychologicalstatistics:multivariateanalysis,factoranalysis,etc.

*Psychologicalmeasurement

**Reliability**Validity

**Abilitytest

***Intelligencetest:IQ,IntelligenceAge,Binet-SimonScale,Stanford-BinetIntelligenceScale,WexlerAdultIntelligenceScale,WexlerIntelligenceScaleforSchool-ageChildren,WexlerIntelligenceScaleforPreschoolChildren,GesellInfantDevelopmentScale,BaileyInfantDevelopmentScale,NewbornBehaviorRatingScale,DenverDevelopmentScreeningTest,MobaScale,PaintingTest,LTECHInternationalOperationalScale,BanderVisualGestaltTest,PeeboDi’sPictureVocabularyTest,PingPeiManipulationScale,ArmyGroupIntelligenceTest,SpecialAbilityTest,WestshoreMusicalAbilityTest,MeyerArtJudgmentTest,etc.

**PersonalityTests:Children’sPersonalityQuestionnaire,CaliforniaPersonalityQuestionnaire,MinnesotaPolyphasicPersonalityQuestionnaire,EysenckPersonalityQuestionnaire,EdwardsPersonalHobbiesScale,ExplicitAnxietyScale,SubjectStatisticsAwarenesstest,Rorschachtest,charactereducationresearchtest,etc.

Holstead-RetanNeuropsychologicalTestSuite

*SocialMeasurement*CaseStudy*DevelopmentalResearch*Cross-culturalResearch

*PsychologicalInstruments:Speed​​indicator,physicalmirror,colorwheel,flashfusiondevice,rodframeadjuster,depthperceptiondevice,audiometer,paintester,memorydrum,polygraph,Skinnerbox,maze,RushleyplatformWait.

TheoreticalPsychology*Psychology:thecategoryofmentalactivity

*Consciousness:theoriginofconsciousness,streamofconsciousness,unconsciousness,mind-bodyrelationship,mind-bodyequivalence,mind-thingsameformtheory,mind-bodyparallelism,Mind-bodyinteractiontheory,paraphenomenontheory,etc.

*Theoreticalschools:empiricism,reflectiontheory,reductionism,anthropomorphism,reflexology,reactionology,stereotypedtheory,psychology,mentalism,biologicalization,sociologicalization,blackboxtheory,Thetheoryofformandspirit,thetheoryofvaluingaperson,thetheoryofknowledgeandbehavior,thetheoryofhabitandnature,etc.

*BehavioralScience

Category

GeneralPsychology

*Sensation

**Sensation**Sensorythreshold

**Psychophysicallaws:Weber’slaw

**Signalperceptiontheory**Neurospecialenergytheory

**Vision:photopicvisionandDarkvision,visualacuity,Machband,lateralsuppression,characteristicperceptron,spatialfrequency,criticalfrequencyofflicker,colorvision,colorvision,colorvisiontheory,naturalcolorsystem,Munsellcolorsystem,etc.

**Auditory:auditorytheory,auditoryspatialpositioning,etc.

**Smell**Taste

**Skin:touch,two-pointthreshold,etc.

**Pain**Vibration**Kinesthesia**Balance**Bodysensation

*Note:Payattentionatwill,notatwill,payattentiontobreadth,payattentiontodistribution,payattentionStability,distraction,etc.

*Perception:Perceptualselectivity,perceptualconstancy,figureperception,figuremasking,figureafter-effect(tiltafter-effect,McCulloughafter-effect,kinestheticafter-effect),spatialperception(depthperception-Randompointstereogram,sizeperception),ecologicaloptics,movementperception(likemovement),timeperception,speechperception,intelligibility,perceptuallearning,illusion,perception,intuition,etc.

*Representation:appearance,illusion,etc.

*Memory:sensorymemory,short-termmemory,long-termmemory,workingmemory,episodicmemory,semanticmemory,meaningmemory,emotionalmemory,motormemory,memorization(meaninglesssyllables),retention,andRecognition,reproduction,recall,recollection,forgetting(maintenancecurve,forgettingcurve),memoryrecovery,serieseffectsofmemory(primaryeffect,recencyeffect),Zegonikeffect,mnemonics,etc.

*Lenovo:freeassociation,controlassociation,closeassociation,contrastassociation,similarassociation,etc.

*Learning

*Imagination:thinkingabout

*Thinking:analysis,synthesis,abstraction,generalization,concretethinking,abstractthinking,creativethinking,noimageThinkingetc.

*Problemsolving:problemspace,heuristics,trialanderror,epiphany,etc.

*Decision-making

*Concepts:conceptformation,artificialconcepts,etc.

*Understanding

*Informationprocessingpsychology:hypothesisofphysicalsymbolsystem,ACTmodel,paralleldistributedprocessing,etc.

*Artificialintelligence:

**Imagerecognition:templatematchingmodel,prototypematchingmodel,"pan-magic"recognitionmodel,etc.

**GPSprogram**EPAMprogram

*Moodandemotion:emotionaltheory,emotionalpolarity,sentiment,expression,mood,enthusiasm,passion,boredom,fear,anger,Stressandsoon.

*Will*Intention*Interest

*Motivation:MotivationTheory

*Need:HierarchyofNeeds

*Behavior:Stimulus,Reactions,incentives,internaldrive,fixedposition,instinct,movement(motorcoordination),movement(reaction,mentalmovement),habits,actions,homework,manipulation,skills,activities,etc.

*Language

*Language:internallanguage,externallanguage,verbalcommunication,etc.

*Reading*Ideal*Personality

*Personality:quality,ability(intelligence,intelligence-intelligencestructuretheory),cognitivestyle,metacognition,internalizationandexternalization,Geniuswaits.

*Temperament:bloody,mucous,depressive,andbile.

*Personality:Extraverted,Introverted,InferiorityComplex,ThinkingType,ArtisticType,AwakeningType,etc.

*Psychology:supersensoryperception(remotevision),psychologicalactuation,etc.

PhysiologicalPsychology

Functionalsystemtheory,equipotentialtheoryofcerebralcortexfunction,theoryofcerebralcortexfunctionpositioning,functionalasymmetryofthetwocerebralhemispheres,cerebralcortexjointarea,thalamus-cortexSpecificprojectionsystem,thalamic-corticalnon-specificprojectionsystem,basalganglia,cerebellum,reticularactivationsystem,limbicsystem,neurotransmitter,reverberationcircuit,spontaneouspotential,evokedpotential,receptivefield,splitbrain,self-stimulation,circadianrhythm,Circadianrhythm,handicap,Pavloviantheory(conditionalreflextheory,analyzertheory,advancedneuralactivitylaw,twosignalsystemtheory,advancedneuralactivitytypetheory,dynamicstereotype),feedingregulation,drinkingwaterregulation,sexualbehaviorThephysiologicalbasis,thebrainmechanismoflearningandmemory,thephysiologicalmechanismofemotion,thephysiologicalmechanismofexercise,sleep,awakening,heredityandbehavior,hormonesandbehavior,etc.

Animalpsychology(fixedactionpatterns,imprinting),ontogenesisofbehavior,socialbiology,animalcommunication,animalintelligence,etc.

DevelopmentalPsychology

*Researchandtheoryofpsychologicaldevelopment:genetics,environmentandpsychologicaldevelopment,maturity,learningandpsychologicaldevelopment,motivationofpsychologicaldevelopment,educationanddevelopment,cognitivedevelopmentStagetheory,epistemologyofoccurrence,developmenttheoryofrepresentationalmode,stagetheoryofpersonalitydevelopment,stagetheoryofmoraldevelopment,repetitiontheory,children'sstudy,game,imitation,imprinting,criticalperiod,egocentricity,earlyexperience,parent-childrelationship,etc.

*Individualdevelopmentstages:fetalperiod,neonatalperiod,infancy,earlychildhood,childhood,adolescence,adolescence,adulthood,oldage,etc.

*ChildPsychology:

**Motiondevelopment:suckingreflex,foragingreflex,graspingreflex,Babinskireflex,etc.

**Cognitivedevelopment:attentiondevelopment,perceptualdevelopment,memorydevelopment,intelligencedevelopment,languagedevelopment,thinkingdevelopment,etc.

**Personalitydevelopment**Onlychild**Supernormalchild**Inferiorchild**Problemchild**Handicappedchild**Wolfchild

*JuvenilePsychology*YouthPsychology*AdultPsychology*GeriatricPsychology*LifelongDevelopmentalPsychology

SocialPsychology

*ExperimentalSocialPsychology*AppliedSocialPsychology*EducationalSocialPsychology

*BusinessPsychology:ConsumerPsychology,AdvertisingPsychology,etc.

*LegalPsychology

**CriminalPsychology:JuvenileCriminalPsychology

**TrialPsychology**TestimonyPsychology

*ConsultationPsychology*Cross-culturalPsychology*EthnicPsychology*ReligiousPsychology*SocialPsychologyoftheFormerSovietUnion

*TheoreticalTheory

**RoleTheory:GenderRoles,GenderDifferences,etc.

**AttributionTheory:AttributionBias

**FieldTheory

**CognitiveConformanceTheory**CognitiveDissonanceTheory**ConsistencyTheory

**InteractionTheory:SignInteractionTheory

**SocialLearningTheory

**SocialExchangeTheory:FairnessTheory

**BalanceTheory**InterpersonalRelationshipActivityIntermediaryTheory

*Conceptsandprocesses:socialadaptation,socialization(internalization),socialperception,interpersonalperception,interpersonalrelationship(interpersonalattraction-interpersonalattractiontheory,Gregariousness,loneliness),socialpromotionandsocialinhibition,self(self-perception),attitude(attitudetheory,attitudeformationandchange,attitudemeasurement),beliefs,values,stereotypes,publicity,communication,communication(interpersonalcommunication,masscommunication,Communicationnetwork),competitionandcooperation,altruisticbehavior,obedience,aggression,bystanderinterventionandindifference,alternativeexperience,imitation,infection,fashion,suggestion,prejudice,rumors,etc.

*GroupPsychology:GroupTheory,GroupThinking,GroupCohesion,GroupDynamics,SocialPsychologicalAtmosphere,SmallGroupConsciousness,MassBehavior,IntergroupRelationship,ReferenceGroup,Collective,CollectiveMemberSelf-determination,ValueConsistencyinorientation,publicopinion,opinionpolls,leadership,leadershipstyle,disappearanceofpersonality,etc.

EducationalPsychology

*LearningPsychology

**LearningTheory:AssociativeReflectionTheory,ConnectionTheory,CognitiveTheory,Connection-CognitiveTheory,LearningThetheoryofactivitiesandsoon.

**LearningInformationProcessingModel

**LearningModel**LearningClassificationTheory**LearningPreparation**LearningMotivation**LearningStereotypes**LearningReinforcement**Learningmeasurementandevaluation

**Learningtransfer:experiencegeneralizationtheory,analysissummarytheory,thesameelementtheory,etc.

**Learningmethods:discoverlearning,acceptlearning,guidelearning,masterlearning,meaningfullearningandmechanicallearning,overalllearningandpartiallearning,concentratedlearningandscatteredlearning,learningcompetition,latentlearning,Over-learning,etc.

**Learningdifferences**Rosenthaleffect**Pygmalioneffect**Mentalhealthoflearning

*Subjectteachingpsychology:Chineseteachingpsychology,mathematicsteachingPsychology,foreignlanguageteachingpsychology,naturalscienceteachingpsychology,socialscienceteachingpsychology,etc.

*Educationaltechnology:audio-visualteaching,programteaching,machineteaching,computer-assistedteaching,self-studytutoring,etc.

*Intellectualeducationpsychology:knowledgemastery,intellectualskills,operationalskills,abilitydifferences,etc.

*Moraleducationpsychology:character,characterstructure,characterformation,characterdevelopmenttheory,characterdifference,etc.

*SportsPsychology*AestheticEducationPsychology*TeacherPsychology

MedicalPsychology

*ConsciousnessDisorder*SleepDisorder*Sleepwalking*SensoryDisorder

*Perceptiondisorders:delusions,hallucinations,etc.

*AttentionDisorders

*MemoryDisorders:Amnesia,haramosisandfiction,déjàvuandoldthingssuchasnewones.

*Intellectualdisability:mentalretardation,dementia,etc.

*Affectivedisorder:anxiety

*Willdisorder

*Thinkingdisorder:delinquency,delusion,etc.

*Obsessive-compulsivestate

*Speechandlanguagedisorders:stuttering,mutism,aphasia,etc.

*Personalitydisorder:mentalillness

*Abnormalsexualbehavior:homosexuality

*Psychologicaldefensemechanism*Tensionstate

*Psychotherapy:Suggestivetherapy,psychoanalysistherapy,Gestalttherapy,behaviortherapy,systemdesensitization,aversiontherapy,tokenreward,biofeedback,hypnotherapy,Qigongtherapy,etc.

*Rehabilitationpsychology

*Mentalhealth:psychologicalconsultation,childhoodmentalhealth,youthmentalhealth,adultmentalhealth,elderlymentalhealth,groupmentalhealth,etc.

*HealthPsychology*AbnormalPsychology*PathologyPsychology*PsychophysiologyMedicine*PsychosomaticMedicine*NursingPsychology*ClinicalNeuropsychology*PsychologicalResearchonAcupunctureAnalgesia

*Defectpsychology:blindpsychology,deaf-mutepsychology,etc.

IndustrialPsychology

*ManagementPsychology:ResearchontheQualityofWorkLife,HumanNatureTheoryinOrganizationalBehavior,GoalSetting,HierarchicalStructure,PersonnelPsychology(jobanalysis,personnelselection,Careerguidance),organizationaldevelopment,organizationalchange,actionresearch,leadership,participationinmanagement,contingencytheory,Hawthorneexperiment,organizationalleveldecision-making,expectationtheory,two-factortheory,fairnesstheory,etc.

*LaborPsychology*EngineeringPsychology

*Ergonomics:simulation,workinghours,workload,mentalload,tracking,performanceevaluation,movementandtimeresearch,lightingeffects,Noiseeffect,temperatureeffect,vibrationeffect,etc.

*Man-machinesystem:monitor,controller,visualdisplayterminal,human-computerinteraction,etc.

*SafetyPsychology:Fatigue

*AviationandSpacePsychology

LiteraryPsychology

*AestheticPsychology*ExperimentalAesthetics

*Aesthetics:artisticintuition,synesthesia,etc.

*Musicpsychology:musicimagination,pitchdiscrimination,auditoryrhythm,musicperformancepsychology,etc.

*Literaryandartistictalent

*Literaryandartisticcreation:inspiration,concreteness,etc.

*Literaryappreciation

Sportspsychology

*Athletepsychology:athlete'sperception,athlete'sspecialfeeling,athlete'spsychologicalselection,athlete'spsychologicaltraining,etc.

*Refereepsychology*Competitionpsychology*Audiencepsychology

Otherspecializedpsychology:generalpsychology,experimentalpsychology,psychophysics,cognitivepsychologyStudies,Psycholinguistics,LanguagePsychology,ChineseCharacterPsychology,DevelopmentalPsychology,MathematicalPsychology,PhysiologicalPsychology,Neuropsychology,ComparativePsychology,AnimalPsychology,SocialPsychology,EducationalPsychology,IndustrialPsychology,Environmentalpsychology,medicalpsychology,artpsychology,sportspsychology,psychology.

Founder

James(WilliamJames)isanAmericanphilosopheranddoctor,andoneofthefoundersofcontemporarypsychology.Hedefinedpsychologyin1890as"thescienceofspirituallife."Hisdefinitionmadeagoodstartforourunderstandingofpsychology,anditcanbesaideventoday.Weallhavespirituallives.Therefore,weknowalittlebitaboutwhatpsychologymeans.Althoughwecanstudypsychologybystudyingratsandmonkeys,orbystudyingpeople,theconceptofpsychologyisstilldifficulttounderstand.

James,likemostpsychologists,isparticularlyinterestedinhumanpsychology.Hebelievesthathumanpsychologyiscomposedofsomebasiccomponents:thoughtsandfeelings,thematerialworldthatexistsintimeandspace,andmethodstounderstandthesethings.Foreachofus,thisknowledgeispersonalandprivateaboveall.Thiskindofknowledgecomesfromourownthoughts,feelings,andexperiencesintheworld,andmayormaynotbeaffectedbyscientificfacts.Forthisreason,weregardourexperienceasatouchstone,anditiseasytomakejudgmentsaboutpsychologicalmatters.We,likeamateurpsychologists,expressourviewsoncomplexpsychologicalphenomena,suchaswhetherbrainwashingworks,orwhenwetreatourselvestootherpeopleastowhytheybehavelikethat(thinkingthattheyarebeinginsulted,feelingunhappy,orAbruptlyabandontheirwork)viewasafact.However,whentwopeopleunderstandthatthingsaredifferent,theproblemarises.Formalpsychologywantstoprovidemethodstodeterminewhichexplanationsaremostlikelytobecorrect,ortodeterminethespecificconditionsunderwhichvariousmethodsareapplicable.Theworkofapsychologisthelpsustodistinguishtwothings:oneisinternalinformation,whichissubjective,maybebiasedandunreliable,andtheotherisfacts.Itistodistinguishourpreconceptionsfromthe"real"thingsinthescientificsense.

AccordingtoJames’definition,psychologyisaboutthemindandthebrain.However,althoughpsychologistsdostudythebrain,weknowtoolittleabouttheworkofthebraintounderstandhowweareexperiencingandexpressingTheroleitplaysinourhopes,fearsanddesires,ortounderstandtheroleitplaysinourcomplexbehaviorsfromhavingchildrentowatchingfootball.Infact,itisalmostimpossibletostudythebraindirectly.Therefore,psychologistshavediscoveredmorethingsbystudyingourbehavior,andusingtheirfindings,derivesvarioushypothesesaboutourinternalsituation.

Psychologyisalsorelatedtomethods.Biology(oftenreferredtoashumans)usesthesemethodstousetheirmentalabilitiesormindstooperateintheworld.Astimegoesbyandtheenvironmentchanges,themethodstheyusehavealsochanged.Thetheoryofevolutionbelievesthatiforganismscannotadapttothechangingenvironment,theywillbeonthevergeofextinction(therefore,therearethesayingsof"notadaptingtoextinction"and"survivalofthefittest").Themindhasalwaysbeenshapedbyadaptiveprocedures,andthisshapingcontinues.Thatistosay,thereasonwhyourmindworksinthiswayisduetoevolutionaryreasons-forexample,whywearebetteratdiscoveringmovingthingsthanstaticthings,probablybecausethisabilityisusefulandcanhelpus.Theancestorsavoidedcarnivores.Understandingthesereasonsisimportantforpsychologists,anditisequallyimportantforpeoplewhoworkinotherdisciplines,suchasbiologyandphysiology.

Theinherentdifficultyinpsychologyresearchisthatscientificfactsshouldbeobjectiveandtestable,buttheoperationofthemindcannotbeseenbylookingattheoperationoftheengine.Indailylife,theoperationofthemindcanonlybeperceivedindirectly,andithastobeinferredfromwhatcanbeobserved(thatis,behavior).Theenergyspentonpsychologyisverysimilartothatofplayingcrosswords.Itinvolvesevaluatingandunderstandingexistingclues,andfillingintheblankswithwhatisalreadyknown.Inaddition,thecluesthemselvesmustbeobtainedfromcarefulobservation,mustbebasedonprecisemeasurements,mustbeanalyzedwithasscientificrigoraspossible,andmustbeexplainedwithlogicalandrationalarguments.TheseargumentsmustbeabletowithstandCanaffordpublicexamination.Mostofthethingswewanttoknowinpsychology--howweperceive,learn,remember,think,solveproblems,feel,develop,differfromeachother,andconnectwitheachother--havetobeindirectTheyaremeasuredlocally,andalloftheseactivitiesaremultiplydetermined:meaningthattheyareaffectedbymultiplefactorsratherthanone.Forexample,imaginethatyouarefacedwithaspecificsituation(lostinastrangetown)andyouwanttoreact,howmanythingsmightaffectyou.Inordertofindtheimportantfactors,otherconfusingfactorshavetobeeliminated.

Inpsychology,complexinteractionsarenotsomuchexceptionsasnormal.Understandingtheseinteractionsdependsonthedevelopmentofcomplextechnologiesandtheories.Thegoalsofpsychologyandotherdisciplinesarethesame:describe,understand,predict,andlearnhowtocontroloradjusttheproceduresstudiedinpsychology.Oncethesegoalsarereached,psychologywillhelpusunderstandthenatureofourexperience,andpsychologywillhavepracticalvalue.Psychologicalfindingsareusefulinsomeareas,suchasdevelopingeffectivemethodsforteachingchildrentoread,designingcontrolpanelsformachinestoreducetheriskofaccidents,andreducingthesufferingofpeoplewithmoodswings.

Althoughtheissuesofpsychologyhavebeendiscussedforhundredsofyears,scientificinvestigationsoftheseissueshaveonlyoccurredinthepast150years.Earlypsychologistsreliedonintrospection,whichistheintrospectionoftheirownconsciousexperience,tofindanswerstopsychologicalquestions.Thepurposeofthesepsychologicalinvestigationsistofindoutthestructureofthemind.However,afterCharlesDarwinpublishedTheOriginofSpeciesin1859,thescopeofpsychologyexpandedtoincludeboththestructureofconsciousnessandthefunctionofconsciousness.Thestructureandfunctionofpsychologyarestillthecenterofinterestofpsychologists,butthereareobviouslimitationsinstudyingthemwithintrospection.AsSirFrancisGaltonpointedout,itmakesaperson"ahelplessobserver,observingonlytheverysubtlepartsofthebrain'sautomaticwork."Asaresult,contemporarypsychologistsprefertobasetheirtheoriesoncarefulobservationofphenomena(suchasthebehaviorofotherpeopletheyareinterestedin)ratherthanonreflectionsonpersonalexperiences.

In1913,JohnWatsonpublishedageneralBehaviouristmanifestoforpsychology,statingthatifpsychologyistobecomeascience,thenitmustbebasedondataForinspection.Thisfocusonobservablebehaviorsratherthaninternal(unobservable)psychologicaleventsisconnectedwiththetheoryoflearning,andwiththeemphasisonreliablemethodsofobservationandexperimentation.Thisreliablemethodofobservationandexperimentationstillaffectspsychology.Behaviorismclaimsthatallbehaviorsaretheresultofconditioning.Conditioningcanbestudiedbyspecifyingstimulusandobservingtheresponsetothestimulus(S-R[psychology]instimulus-responsepsychology).Whathappenedbetweenthetwo,interveningvariables,wasconsideredunimportantbyearlybehaviorism,butlaterbecamethemainsourceofexperimentalhypotheses.Testinghypothesesaboutthesethingshasallowedpsychologiststocreateincreasinglycomplextheoriesaboutmentalstructure,mentalfunctions,andmentalprocesses.

TwoothermeaningfulinfluencesonthedevelopmentofpsychologyatthebeginningofthiscenturycomefromGestaltpsychologyandpsychoanalysis.TheGettapsychologistworkinginGermanyhassomeinterestingdiscoveriesaboutthewaythepsychologyprogramiscomposed.Thesefindingsindicatethatifourexperienceisonlybasedonthephysicalcharacteristicsofexternalstimuli,thenourexperienceisdifferentfromwhatweexpected,andtheconclusionisthat"thewholeisgreaterthanthesumofitsparts."Forexample,whentwoverysimilarlightsflashinsequence,whatweseeisalightmovingbetweentwopositions(thisistheprincipleofthemovie).Recognizingthatpsychologicalproceduresinfluencethenatureofexperienceinthiswayhaslaidthefoundationforthedevelopmentofcontemporarycognitivepsychology(Cognitivepspchology).Cognitivepsychologyisabranchofpsychologythatstudiessuchinternalprocedures.

SigmundFreud'stheoryattractedattentiontounconsciousprocesses.Histheoryisaboutthecontinuousinfluenceofearlychildhoodexperiencesandthetheoreticalpsychologicalstructure,whichhecallsego,id,andsuperego.Unconsciousproceduresincludeunconsciousandunacceptabledesiresanddesires.Theseproceduresareinferredfromdreams,slipsofthetongue,andoddities,andareconsideredtohaveanimpactonbehavior.Inparticular,unconsciousconflictisassumedtobethemaincauseofpsychologicaldepression.Psychoanalystscanhelpalleviatethisdepressionbyassistingpeopleinexpressingtheseconflicts,andexplainthebehaviorofpatientswiththepsychodynamictheorybasedonFreud'swork.Freud'stheoryisbasedonunobservablementalprocesses,andthisnaturemakesitdifficulttoscientificallytestthetheory.Overtheyears,themorescientificordescriptivebranchesofpsychologyhavedevelopedindependentlyalongtheirowndifferentpaths.

Contemporarypsychologyisatanexcitingstagetoday,partlybecauseinsomeplacesthedividinglinebetweenbranchesofpsychologyiscollapsing.Howtounderstandwhatwecannotdirectlyobserveisnotjustaprobleminpsychology,butalsoinotherdisciplines-thinkaboutphysicsandbiochemistry.Advancesintechnologyandtheoryhavehelpedthisprocess,andthisdevelopmenthaschangedthenatureofpsychologyasascienceandwillcontinuetocausechanges.Psychologistscanusecomplexmeasuringinstruments,electronicequipmentandimprovedstatisticalmethods,aswellasallequipmentincomputersandinformationtechnologytoanalyzeavarietyofvariablesandlargeamountsofdata.Studyingthemindasaninformationprocessingsystemhasenabledpsychologiststofindmorethingsthatcannotbedirectlyobserved,aswellasvariousvariablesbetweenstimuliandresponses,suchasattention,thoughts,anddecision-makingvariables..Psychologistscanbasetheirassumptionsonthesethingsnotonlyonintrospectivehypotheses,asearlyanalystsdid,oronobservationsofbehavior,asearlybehavioristsdid,butonThecombinationofthesethingsisbasedonamorereliableandeffectivemethodofobservationandmeasurement.Thesedevelopmentshaveproducedarevolutioninpsychologyasthe"scienceofspirituallife",andtheircontinueddevelopmentmeansthatthereisstillmuchtobediscovered.