Asabook
PublishedbyGermanculturalanthropologistMitchellLandmanin1955,thebookcomprehensivelyexpoundstheinsandoutsofphilosophicalanthropologyasaphilosophy.ItThemaincontent,basicprinciplesandimportanceofthebook,butalsothankstoLandman'sextensivecomprehensiveability,in-depthanalysis,clearandclearwriting.Thisbooktalksaboutsomefamousanthropologistsandclarifiestheconnectionbetweenanthropologyasaphilosophicaldisciplineandallanthropologicalviewpointsthatpermeateethicsandsocialsciences.ItalsoinvolvestherelationshipbetweenGermanphilosophicalanthropologyandAmericanculturalanthropology,anddiscussesthedifferencebetweenphilosophicalanthropologyandthe"humanimage"containedinallreligionsandarts.
Maincontent
Thisbooktracestheoriginsofanthropologyandtheoriginofphilosophicalanthropology,exploresthemethodsandsignificanceofphilosophicalanthropology,andintroducesthemainschoolsofphilosophicalanthropology.,Putsforwardtheauthor'sviewpointofculturalphilosophicalanthropology(alsoreferredtoasculturalanthropologyforshort)morecomprehensivelyandsystematically.
Thisbookishailedasthe"standardauthoritativework"inthefieldofphilosophicalanthropology.
Tounderstandphilosophicalanthropology,thisbookcanbereadasanintroductoryworkorasaspecializedworktostudy.
SociologicalTheory
Attheendofthe16thcentury,thetermanthropologybegantobeusedinphilosophydepartmentsofGermanuniversities.Inthe18thcentury,therewasatendencytodivideanthropologyintonaturalanthropologyandculturalanthropology;theformerregardedmanasanaturalspecies,andthelatterregardedmanasasocialexistenceindividualizedbyhistoricalandgeographicalfactors.Thisistomeettheneedsofscientificdivisionoflabor,whichhasbeenincreasingrecently.
Asaresult,thefieldofanthropologyhasbeendividedintomoreandmorespecializeddisciplinestostudyvariousaspectsofhumansseparately.Philosophicalanthropologyaimstosavethisdecompositionofhumanresearch,tryingtoregroupthosespecializeddisciplinesintoacommongoal,andtrytogivehumanresearchasenseoforganization.Becausethereisnosenseoforganization,thescienceofpeoplewillignorethenatureofhumanbeingsandignorehumannature.
Contemporary
Althoughitbeganinthe1920s,peopleareoftenthesubjectofresearchinWesternphilosophy.Inthemiddleofthe5thcenturyBC,thewiseProtagoras(Protagoras)formulatedthebasicprincipleofanthropology:"Manistheyardstickofallthings."Soon,SocratesalsotookDelphi'soracle"knowyourself"ashisdogma.Humans,theworld,andgodshavebeenmajortopicsinWesternthoughtsincehistory,butthesignificanceofthesethreehasbeendifferentfromgenerationtogeneration.
Inancienttimes,theconceptoftheuniverseortheorderoftheuniversewasemphasized,andcosmologytookprecedenceovertheologyandanthropology.Themacroscopicworldofcelestialbodiesdominatesthemicroscopicworldofmankindwithitslaws.MedievalculturestillretainstheancientGreekworldstructure,butthereisalsoachange;intheeyesoftheGreeks,theauthorityofthecosmicorderissuperiortogods;butintheeyesofChristianity,anomnipotentgodisthecreatorandmanoftheworldCreator.Mandoesnotliveforhimself,heisinthepositionofacreationofGod.AlthoughstrictlyspeakingtherewasnosuchdisciplineasanthropologyintheMiddleAges,thereisapartoftheologythattalksaboutthefallennatureofmanandthepossibilityofsalvation.IntheRenaissanceera,althoughmandidnotstopobservinghimselfwithintheframeworkoftheuniverseanddidnotdenytheexistenceofGod,hefullygotridoftheseshacklesandregardedhimselfasthecenterofattention,andthegravitationalcenterofthoughtalsodescendedfromthesky.Underground;onecanbeproudofhisachievements.Italianhumanistsoftentakehumandignityandmeritsasthesubjectoftheirdiscourse.HumanismintheRenaissancewasnotyetphilosophicalanthropology,itwasstillbewitchedbythethemethatmanisaportrayalofGod.
Skeptic
(MicheldeMontaigne)isarepresentativeoftheinitialattemptatanthropologicalthinking.Histhinkinggetsridofthefettersofalldogmas,andusesthespiritofinvestigationbasedonexperiencetoexploredifferentaspectsofpeople.FrancisBacon,thepioneerofempiricisminthelate16thandearly17thcenturies,setanexampleinthisregard,buttheclassicalphilosophyofthe17thcenturydeviatedfromthepathopenedbyMontaigne,thinkingthat"swayingpeople"seemedinsufficientaseternaltruth.Astrongpillar.TheFrenchphilosopherBlaisePascalbelievedthathumansareneitherangelsnorbeasts,anditisfutiletotrytounderstandhumansasfallengodsoradvancedanimals.ReneDescartesregardedpersonalconsciousnessasthequickestmeansofpredictinginevitability.Spinoza(BenedictdeSpinoza)andMalebranche(NicolasMalebranche)believethattheindividual'sselfisneitherrealnorvalued.Thephilosophicalanthropologyhasnoplacebeforeabandoningthesystemprescribedbythegreatrationalismtoreality.Attheendofthe17thcentury,JohnLocke's"EssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding"broughtanewstyletoEuropeanthought,advocatingtheuseofempiricalmethodsofinquiry,andrequiringpeopletobeawareoftheeffectsofhumanknowledge.limit.Lockestatedthatmanshouldadmitthatheistherationalmasterofthisworld,butmanisnotanabsolutesubject,butaphysicalconsciousnesswithvariousshortcomingsandlimitationsofahumanentity.ThephilosophyofLocke,Hume(DavidHume)andFrenchCondillac(EtienneBonnotdeCondillac)canbecountedasphilosophicalanthropology.TheencyclopediasofJeanLeRondd'AlembertandDenisDiderotalsohaveananthropologicaltendency.
TheEnlightenment
Philosophicalanthropologyhasobviouscharacteristics.Itisabranchofphilosophycloselyrelatedtothehumanities.ThinkersintheEnlightenmentperiodrediscoveredthatmanisnotonlyanaturalanimal,butalsoaculturalanimal;theysupplementedthetraditionalnaturalphilosophywith"historicalphilosophy."Montesquieu,Voltaire,KantandHegelalldevelopedahistoricalorlegalandpoliticalanthropology.Inthe19thcenturywhenthesocialscienceswerehighlyspecialized,scientificexpertshadnarrowerandnarrowerhorizons.Theyexaggeratedtheirownsciencetoomuch,andturnedouttobecaptivesoftheirspecialization,insteadofobservingthewholehumanbeinganditsessence.Religiousscienceexpertsseeonlyreligiousrituals,whileeconomicsexpertsbelievethatpersonalorsociallifeisonlyfocusedonpersonalmaterialinterests.Inordertoremedythisepistemologicalanarchy,philosophicalanthropologyadvocatesthatthevalueoflifeisinthefirstplaceintheunderstandingofhumanbeings.Beforetheemergenceofthehumanities,ancientphilosophywascalledmetaphysics;thisnewbranchofphilosophycanberegardedas"people-orientedlearning",inordertoachieveabalancebetweenpeopleintheclimaxofthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology.
TheinfluenceofChristianity
Westernthoughtcircleshavelongrejectedtheconceptofhumanbeingsasanaturalexistence;peopleregardDarwin'stheoryofevolutionashumiliationanddepravity.Ontheotherhand,therationalistphilosophyofthe17thcenturydidnottreatthehumanbodyasahumanbeing,andbelievedthatthenatureofahumanbeinghadnothingincommonwithhisphysicalorgans.Philosophicalanthropologyisthecompleteoppositeofthisdualism,whichbelievesthatthesetwoaspectsofmanareunified.Experienceprovesthatthereisnomindwithoutabody.Themonismofanthropologyisnotthemonismofontology,butthemonismofepistemology.
Germanscholar
(JohannFriedrichBlumenbach)isconsideredthefatherofnaturalanthropology.His"OntheNaturalVariationofMan"(DeGenerisHumaniVarietateNativa,1775)isAbookthatcontinuesPuFeng's(Georges-LouisLeclerc,CountdeBuffon)Histoirenaturelle,generaletparticuliere(Histoirenaturelle,generaletparticuliere).Hebelievesthatonlytalentshavethehandstomaketools;onlytalentscanTalking,crying,andlaughing.ThroughBlumenbach'swork,naturalanthropologymaynowmakemoretheoreticaldiscussionsonhumans.Theuprightpostureofapersonliberatestheforelimbsanddevelopsintoahand,whichisthesourceoftechnologicalcreation.Atthesametime,theuprightpostureallowspeopletoexpandtheirfieldofvisionandincreasethefieldofactivity.Althoughmanisweak,naked,andlacksnaturaldefenses,hisbodystructureisthebasisofhisphysicalfreedom,andhiswisdomisthemosteffectiveweapontoensurehissurvival.
Manisaproductofevolution,butthisconceptwasnoteasytoacceptatfirst.Inthefirsthalfofthe19thcentury,FrencharchaeologistJacquesBoucherdePerthesdiscoveredsomeprocessedflintsandotherstonetoolsinnorthernFrance,whichhebelievesarerelicsofancientculture.Itwasnotuntil20yearslater,whenDarwin'sOriginofSpecieswaspublishedin1859,thatpeopleacknowledgedthisstatement.
Theoppositeofrationalism
Itsobjectisnotanabstractperson,notthe"Ithink,thereforeIam"me,butadiscussionofthehumanexistence.Naturalanthropologycannotbeseparatedfromculturalanthropology.Humanvariationmustbeunderstoodnotonlyfromthenaturalaspect,butalsofromtheculturalaspect.Peoplearetheproductofculture,andthereisnopurebarbarianlikePuFengimagined.SwissbiologistAdolfPortmannsaid:"Theuniquewayofhumaninheritanceisnotbiological,butsocial."Atthesametime,humansarealsothecreatorsofculture.Attheendofthe18thcentury,GermanromanticismpioneerJohannGottfriedvonHerdersaid:"Weliveinaworldthatwehavecreated."Thephilosophicalviewholdsthatculturaltalentisanintegralpartofhumanexistence.Thesocialmaterializationofhisbodyisthesameasthematerializationofhisbody,whichisaprerequisiteforhisexistenceintheworld.
Inthe1920s,Westernphilosophicalthoughtsrepresentedbyphenomenology,existentialism,andpersonalityismfocusedonpersonallivingconditions.Philosophicalanthropologyisaphilosophyofincorporation,whichregardseveryexistingindividualasincapableofgettingridofthedoubleconcretereality:itcannotbewithoutabody;atthesametime,intheirsocialgroupasanecessaryelement(suchasfamily,Statesandpoliticalparties),andconnectedwithotherindividuals.Thisself-unityisnotvisibleatthemoment,butexploresoneselfinconstantcontactwithvariousfactors.Accordingtophilosophicalanthropologists,thereisneitherauniversalformulaoftruthnorafixedruleoftruthintheworld.Thetruemeaningoftruthistoexploreoneselfinthisway,andnothingcanbecertainuntiltheconclusionisreached.Theindividualisconsideredtobethesubjectofbasicvalues,andheforceshimselftoassumeallmajorresponsibilities.Comparedwiththeontologyofrationalism,theanthropologyofphilosophypaysmoreattentiontotheindividual.Ithopestobecomeaphilosophyofconcretehumanlifeexperience,regardlessoftheessenceoftheontology.
Philosophicalanthropologyfocusesontheunsolvablemysteriesofeachindividual’slife,andanymodelandschemaofpsychologycanonlyprovidealimitedunderstandingofit.Philosophicalanthropologycannotformaschool,butcanonlyrepresentatrendsharedbyvariousmodernthoughts.
Formostphilosophicalanthropologists,therelationshipbetweenmanandGodmustbecountedinordertodeterminethestatusofmaninthewholeofthings.IfthemaintaskofancientthoughtistoprovetheexistenceofGod,thefirsttaskofmodernthoughtistoprovetheexistenceofman.