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Empireestablishment

Mainentry:RomanRepublic

TheendoftheRomanRepublicwasaturbulentera.In44BC,GaiusJuliusCaesarwasassassinated,andhiswillappointedOctavianashisheir.Octavian,whowas19yearsoldatthetimeandwasintheGreekApolloniaArmy,immediatelymarchedbacktoRomeafterlearningaboutit.RomeatthistimeisinthehandsofBrutusandCassius,therepublicanelderswhomurderedCaesar.OctavianmanagedtoformanalliancewithCaesar'scolleaguesMarkAnthonyandLepida,whichisknownasthelatterthreeallianceinhistory.ThethreebegantocleanuptheheresyoftheSenate,andmorethanahundredsenatorsandthousandsofknightswerekilled.AntonyandOctavianledanarmytopursueBrutusandCassiuswhohadfledtotheeast.In42BC,BrutusandCassiuscommittedsuicideinthebattleofPhilippi.OctavianreturnedtoRome,andAnthonywenttoEgypttoallywithCaesar’slover,CleopatraVII(Cleopatra),QueenofthePtolemaicdynastyofEgypt.Atthispoint,RomebelongedtoOctavianinthewestandAnthonyintheeast.

AnthonyfocusedontheParthianwarintheEast,andalwaysmaintainedacloserelationshipwiththeQueenofEgypt.OctavianmadealotofpeopleinRome,consolidatedpower,andatthesametimeslanderedAntony,claimingthathehadcolludedwithforeignforcesandrebelledagainstRome.Thecontradictionbetweenthetwosideshasbecomeincreasinglyfierce.Finally,inthefirst32years,OctaviandeclaredwaronAnthony.InSeptember31BC,thecoalitionforcesofAnthonyandtheQueenofEgyptfoughtOctavianatCapeActinginGreece,knownastheBattleofActing.Asaresult,AnthonywasdefeatedandfledbacktoEgyptwiththequeen.Inthefirst30years,whenOctavianinvadedEgypt,AntonyandtheQueencommittedsuicide.TheQueenandCaesar'sillegitimatesonCaesarLeonwasexecuted,andthePtolemaicdynastyperished.Atthispoint,EgyptbecameaprovinceofRome.

Inthefirst27years,Octaviancleverlyusedpoliticalskillstodeclaretotheoutsideworldthathewouldseverallpowersandrestoretherepublic;ontheotherhand,hepretendedtobeforcedbytherequestoftheSenateandcitizenstoacceptthatitwascompletelycontrarytotherepublic.Theabsolutepowertobecomethechiefelder(thatis,theheadofstate,fromwhichtheheadofstatesystemcame),thesupremeconsul,thelife-longconsul,thelifeguarantor,thechiefpriest,etc.,claimingtobethe"firstcitizen",thesupremecommander(ortranslatedas""GeneralTriumph","GrandMarshal"),andwonthetitlesof"Augustus"(meaning"sacred")and"FatheroftheFatherland"awardedbytheSenate.ThiswonderfulperformancebyOctavianannouncedtheestablishmentoftheRomanEmpire.

Transitionanddevelopment

Mainentry:JuliaClaudiussub>

DuringthereignofAugustus,hereformedthemilitary,reducedarmaments,andestablishedthefirststandingarmyandguardsintheempire;setupacabinettoassisttheemperorinhandlinggovernmentaffairs;The"NationalTaxationBureau"wasestablishedtocontrolthefinancialpower;theadministrativedivisionswerereorganized,andtheprovincesoftheSenateandtheemperorweredividedtoestablishtheemperor'shighestmilitarypower.AugustususeddiplomaticmeanstoestablishfriendlyrelationswithParthiaandArmenia.

Inthefirst19years,theempireconqueredallofSpain.Beginning16yearsago,AugustussenttroopstotheeasternAlpsandtheupperreachesoftheDanube,settinguptwoprovinces,RetiaandNorric,andthensenttroopstothemiddleandlowerreachesoftheDanube,settinguptwoprovinces,PannoniaandMessia.Inthefirst12to5years,thelandbetweentheRhineandtheElbewasgraduallyconquered,butthenewlyconqueredlandcontinuedtoriot.In9years,thegeneralVaruswasambushedinthebattleoftheTeutoburgForesttosuppresstheGermanuprisingandwasannihilated.AugustushadtoabandonthelandbetweentheRhineandtheElbe.Sincethen,theexpansionoftheRomanEmpiretoWestGermanyceased.Augustusdidnotcarryoutanymajorexpeditions,andthefollowingtwocenturieswerealongperiodofstability,calledthe"RomanPeace"period.

In14years,AugustusdiedandpasseddownhisadoptedsonTiberius.Inordertostrengthentheimperialpower,Tiberiusabolishedthelegislativepowerandvotingpowerofthecitizens'assembly,andconcentratedtheguardstoRometodefendtheemperor.Tiberiushadacoldandharshpersonality.Inthelaterperiodofhisreign,heactedarbitrarilyandrepeatedlysanctionedagainstorcriticizedtheemperor'swordsanddeeds.HedemandedthattheSenatecouldonlyexpressthesameopinionsashim,andtherelationshipbetweentheSenateandthefamilywasstrained.HeretiredtoCapriin26years,whereheruledRomefornearlytenyears.In37years,TiberiusdiedofCapri.

AfterthedeathofTiberius,theGuardsmadeCaligulatheemperor.ThisisthefirsttimeinRomanhistorythatanarmyhassupportedanemperor.Intheearlydaysofhisreign,Caligulawasgenerousandgenerous,andwasuniversallylovedbythepeople.Inthelaterperiod,hesuddenlysufferedfrommentalillness,ignoredstateaffairs,indulgedinentertainmentactivities,becamemoody,brutalandbloodthirsty,oftenexecutedSenatemembersandnoblesandconfiscatedtheirproperty.For40years,helecturedinRometopromotepersonaldictatorshipanddeifytheemperor.In41,Caligulawaskilledbytheguards.

AfterCaligula'sdeath,theguardssupportedhiselderlyuncleClaudiusascendedthethrone.DuringClaudius’sreign,hereformedgovernmentagenciesandestablishedabureaucraticsystem:thecentralgovernmenthasthreedepartments,namelytheSecretariat(inchargeofinternalaffairs,military,andforeignaffairs),theFinanceDepartment(inchargeoffinances),andtheJudicialDepartment(inchargeoflaws)..Improvedthestatusofknights,andgrantedRomancitizenshiptoresidentsoftheprovince.Asaresult,provincialnoblescanalsoserveasseniorofficialsorentertheSenate.Intermsofexternalexpansion,ithasconqueredsouthernBritainandMauritania.ClaudiusalsobuilttheportofOstiaatthemouthoftheTiberRiverandalarge-scalewaterpipeline.In54years,ClaudiusmaybepoisonedtodeathbyQueenAgrippinatheYounger.

AfterClaudiusdied,hisadoptedsonNerocametothethrone.DuringNero'sreign,heformulatedanumberofpoliciesthatbenefitedthecommonpeople.TheappointmentofthefamousplayerCorbrosuccessfullyresolvedthecrisisbetweenParthiaandArmenia.Butatthesametime,hewasalsoafamoustyrantinRomanhistory,cruelandtyrannical,andmurderedmothersandwives.Heispassionateaboutartandconsidershimselfa"greatartist".In64,afirebrokeoutinRome,andalmostallofthecitywasburneddown.Afterthefire,Nerobegantobuildanewpalacenamed"GoldenPalace".RumorsspreadinRome:Nerosetfiretobuildanewpalace.Inordertoeliminaterumors,NerousedChristiansasscapegoatstohuntandkillthem.In1966,theJewishWarbrokeoutinPalestine.Atthistime,NerowenttoGreeceforalongarttour.AsNerofellinpower,uprisingsagainstNerobrokeouteverywhere.InMarch1968,theGovernorofGaulWendéxandtheGovernorofSpainGarbarebelled.InMay,Wendikeswasdefeatedanddied.Atthistime,theSenatedeclaredNerotobeapublicenemyofthecountry,andNerocommittedsuicidewhilefleeing.

Mainentry:TheYearoftheFourEmperors

AfterNero'sdeath,theSenaterecognizedGarbaasemperor.DuetoGarba'soldageandfrailty,unabletocontrolthesituation,leadinggeneralsaroundtheworldhaveastrongsenseofself-respect.InJanuary1969,Vitrius,governorofLowerGermania,proclaimedhimselfemperor,whileGarbawaskilledbyhissubordinatesOtto,whomadehimselfemperor.InMarch,VitriussenttroopstocompetewithOttoforthethrone,andOttocommittedsuicideindefeat.InJuly,WeiPaxiang,thegeneralwhowasquellingtheJewishrebellion,wasadoptedasemperorbymanytroops.InOctober,WeiPaxiangdefeatedVitriusandendedthebattleforthethrone.

Stabilizationandconsolidation

Mainentry:FlavicDynasty

InDecember69,WeiPaxiangbecameemperor.AfterWeiPaxiangbecameemperor,theempirewasfacingacrisis,andhefirstsuppressedtheuprisingsinvariousplaces.In70years,successfullysuppressedtheBadawirebellion.Inthesameyear,hissonTituscapturedJerusalem,massacredalargenumberofJews,andburneddowntheJewishtemple.TheJewishWarended.Inordertomakeupforthefinancialproblemscausedbythecivilwar,WeiPaxiangstrengthenedtaxationmanagementandincreasedprovincialtaxestorectifythemilitaryandinternalaffairs.Duringhisreign,hevigorouslystrengthenedthestatusoftheprovince.In1973,headdedthenoblesofvariousprovincestotheSenateandgrantedRomancitizenshiptomanynoblesoftheprovinces,allowingthenoblesoftheprovincestoparticipateinpoliticsextensively.

In1979,WeiPaxiangdiedandhissonTitusbecamethethrone.Titusismoderateinpolitics.Inthefirstyearofhistenure,MountVesuviuseruptedandburiedPompeii;afterthat,firesandplaguesbrokeoutinRome.Titusranaround,tiredofdisasterreliefwork.

In1981,TitusdiedandhisyoungerbrotherDomitiancametothethrone.Domitianvigorouslypromotedtheimperialpower,consolidatedtheheadofstatesystem,reformedthecabinet,andfurtherattractedtheknightlyclasstoparticipateinpolitics.Intermsofexternalexpansion,heachievedsuccessinSouthGermany,buildingtheGermanGreatWall,connectingtheRhineandtheupperreachesoftheDanubeintoonebodyandincorporatingitintotheempire'sterritory.However,helosttwiceinthewaragainstDaciaandfinallygavegiftstomakepeace.Domitianwasanautocraticdictatorship,whoregardedhimselfas"theLordandGod"anddespisedtheSenate.In1989,Domitianexecutedalargenumberofeldersanddignitariesunderthepretextofsupportingtherebellion,whichcausedpanicamongthepeople.In1996,Domitiandiedinacourtcoup.

Prosperity

Mainentry:AntonianDynasty

AfterDomitian'sdeath,theSenateelectedNerva,anoldandheirlessformerconsulasemperor.Nervarespectedandtreatedthesenatorswell,andtheauthorityoftheSenatewasrestoredtosomeextent.Buthewasquiteunpopularwiththearmyandmilitarycommanders.Inordertowinthesupportofthearmy,NervaselectedtheoutstandingGermanicgovernorTrajanashisadoptedsoninthesecondyearofhisascension,successfullyquellingthearmy'sdissatisfaction.

In1998,NervadiedandTrajancametothethrone.Hewasthefirstemperorfromaprovincialnobleman.TrajancontinuedtoimplementNerva'spolicyoftreatingtheelderswell,vigorouslyconstructingpublicfacilities,andactivelyexpandingabroad.Duringhisreign,theterritoryoftheRomanEmpirereacheditsmaximum.From101onwards,TrajanledhisarmytoinvadeDacia,andin106itwascompletelyconquered,andDaciaprovincewasestablished.Trajanheldagrandtriumphalceremony,announcingthecelebrationof123days,andbuilttheancientRomanTrajanPillar.In105,TrajanoccupiednorthernArabiaandestablishedArabprovinces.In114,TrajanannexedArmeniaandestablishedtheArmenianProvince.Afterthat,TrajancontinuedtoadvanceeastwardanddefeatedtheParthianarmy.In116,heoccupiedthecapitalofParthianTaisifeng.Attheendoftheyear,Trajan'ssoldiersarrivedinthePersianGulf,andhewastheonlyRomancommanderwhohadreachedhere.In117,Trajan'sdiseasewasseverelywithdrawn,andtwoprovinces,AssyriaandMesopotamia,wereestablished.Beforehedied,Hadrianwasannouncedasanadoptedson.

AfterTrajan'sdeath,Hadrianascendedthethrone.Hadrianturnedoffensivetodefensive,givingupthelandthatTrajanhadconqueredintheeast.DuringHadrian'sreign,hetraveledmanytimes,andhisfootprintscoveredalmosttheentireempire.Duringthisperiod,hebuilttheeast-west"Hadrian'sWall"inthenorthernpartoftheBritishIslestodefendagainsttheintrusionofthebarbariansinScotland;unifiedrecruitmentstandards,strengthenedthequalityofthearmy,andestablishedatemporaryarmysystem.Hadrianfurtherenhancedtheimperialpower,takingthewilloftheemperorasthesupremelaw,andorderedjuriststocompilethe"PermanentEdict"asthelegalbasisoftheempire;vigorouslystrengthenthestatusofknightsandmakeitaspecificbureaucraticclass;continueandstrengthentheprovinceTheRomanizationofthecountrynarrowedthedistancebetweentheprovincialcitiesandRome.HealsorebuiltthefamousPantheoninRome.In131,HadrianbannedJewsfromcircumcision,SabbathandreadingJewishlaws.ThistriggeredaJewishuprising.TheRomanarmykilled580,000Jewsintwoyearstosuppresstheuprising.HadrianbannedJewsfromlivinginJerusalem,andalargenumberofJewshaveneversettledinJerusalem.Hadrianattachesgreatimportancetotheissueofheirs.Hechosea52-year-oldmemberofParliament,AntonniAsylum,ashisadoptedson,andaskedhimtoadopt18-year-oldmemberofParliamentMarcoAureliusand7-year-oldLuciusViru.Siistheadoptedson.

In138,Hadrianpassedaway,andhisadoptedson,AntoniAsylum,tookthethrone.DuringAntoniAsylum’sreign,heconvergedonthebordersandwasgenerallyfine;hehadagoodrelationshipwiththeSenate,hadagoodrelationshipwiththeSenate,andenjoyedapeacefulandprosperousperiodinRomeformorethan20years.

In161,AntoniusPiusdied,andthethronewasinheritedbytwoadoptedsons,VerusandMarcoAurelius.ThiswasthefirsttimeinRomanhistorythatthetwoemperorsruledtogether.MarcoAureliusisthefamous"philosopheremperor"andthemainexpounderofStoicphilosophy.Heistheauthorof"Meditations",whileVerusismoremediocre.

Whenthetwocametothethrone,thesituationontheborderoftheempirewassevere.ParthiainvadedArmeniain162.Afterfouryearsofhardwork,VerusrepelledParthiaandannexedMessofrom164to165.NorthofPotamia.In167,theGermansinvadedagain,andthetwoemperorshadtoleadtheirtroopstoconquer.Duetofinancialconstraints,thesilvercontentofthedinarsilvercoinwasfurtherreduced.In169,Velusdied,andtheempirewasrestoredtothesituationofanemperor.InordertorelievethepressureoftheGermansontheempire,MarcoAureliusallowedthemtosettleontheborderoftheempire,layingahiddendangerforfuturebarbarianinvasions.In175,thegeneralAvidiusCassiuslaunchedarebellionintheeasternpartoftheempire,anditwasquicklysuppressed.MarcoAureliusthenlaunchedawaragainsttheGermansinanattempttoannexBohemia.In180,justbeforesuccess,MarcoAureliusdiedofillness.

MarcoAureliuswasarelativelygreatemperor.Duringhisreign,hewasdiligentandlovingthepeople,activelyhandledgovernmentaffairs,andguardedthebordersoftheempire.However,duringthisperiod,theGermanicbarbarianincursionsintensified,theborderdefenselinehasbeeninastateoflosingground,andthedomesticeconomicsituationisdeterioratingdaybyday.Afterhisdeath,theRomanEmpiregraduallybegantodecline.

Fromprosperitytodecline

AfterthedeathofMarcoAureliu,hisson,KangMaode,succeededtothethrone.Intheearlydaysofhisreign,Commodoredidnotdaretoindulge,andrespectedtheeldersappointedbyMarcoOleliutoassisthimduringhislifetime.In182,hissisterLucillaandsomeelderstriedtoassassinatehim.Aftertheincident,heexecutedeveryoneinvolvedintheassassinationandmanyinnocentpeople.Fromthenon,KangMaodenolongertrustedtheelders,andhandedoverthepoliticalaffairstothefavoredministerandthecommanderoftheguards.Inthelatereign,hewascruelandsuspicious.Helikedcircus,wrestlingandothersportsactivities.HeclaimedtobethereincarnationofHercules.

Commod'srulecauseddissatisfactionamongthepeople,andmanypeopleconspiredtoassassinatehim,whichalsomadehimmoreweirdandtyrannical.Attheendof192,whenCommodoreannouncedthathewouldbedressedasagladiatorastheconsul,hismistressgavehimaglassofpoisonandwassubsequentlymurderedbyawrestlersentbythecommanderoftheGuards.

Mainentry:TheYearoftheFiveEmperors

KangAfterthedeathofProud,theGuardsadoptedthecitygovernorPettinaxasemperor.PettinaxactivelyquelledthenegativeimpactofCommodoreontheempire,butwhenhewantedtocleanupmilitarydiscipline,hewasimmediatelykilledbytheguards.

AfterPetinax'sdeath,theGuardsunexpectedlyannouncedthatthethronewouldbeauctioned,andthosewhobidmorecanbecometheemperor.Aftercompetitionamongmanypeople,Julianusboughtthethroneatapricesatisfiedbytheguards.ButJulianusdidnothaveafollower,andthearmydismissedhimevenmore.TheSyriangovernorNageltooktheleadinestablishinghimselfasemperor,andthenthegovernorofPannoniaandtheNorthAfricanSeverusrebelled.HeledthetroopsquicklytoRome.Themoraleoftheguardswaslowandtheywerequicklydefeated.TheSenateinsteaddeclaredSeverusemperor.TheGuardsexecutedJulianustorequestSeverus'forgiveness.AfterenteringRome,Severusexecutedalltheoriginalguardsonchargesoftreason,andformedalargernewguardwithhisownsoldiers.

Thecrisisbegins

Mainentry:SeverusDynasty

AfterSeverusbecameemperor,heimmediatelywenttowarwithNigel,whohadalreadybecomeemperor.In194,NigelwasdefeatedatIssus.In197,SeverusdefeatedtherebelliousBritishGovernorAlbanusinLyon,andthecivilwarfrom193ended.Severuswasasoldierandhewasaccustomedtoactingarbitrarily.HedidnotputtheSenateinhiseyesandremovedmanysenatorsfromimportantpositionsandreplacedthemwithcroniesandknights.Severus’rulewasbackedbythearmy.HeexpandedhisarmyaggressivelyandexpandedtheRomanarmytoanunprecedentedlevel.Mostofthemwereforeigners,andtheyusedhighratestowinoverthearmy,andhewasnotstingywithrewards.Severusachievedconsiderablemilitarysuccess.Inadditiontoendingthecivilwar,healsodefeatedParthiain197andonceagainannexednorthernMesopotamiaandsetitasaprovince.Severustransitionedtheheadofstatetoanabsolutemonarchy.Thejuristsatthetimesaidthat"heisnotsubjecttoalllawsandistherulerofanyone,andtheempireishisproperty."In208,SeverussenttroopstoBritaintoconquersouthernScotland.In211,hediedofillnessinYork.Attheendofhislife,hislastwordstothetwosonswere:"Mayyourbrothersgetalongwitheachothersothatthesoldierscangetrichanddon’tcareaboutothers."

AfterSeveru’sdeath,thetwosonsCaracallaandGettaAtthesametimeascendedthethrone.Caracallawasanothertyrant,andthefollowingyear,hekilledhisbrotherGetaandhiscomrades.Hiswife,father-in-lawandmanyfamouspeoplewerealsokilled.CaracallacontinuedtoimplementSeverus’policyofpreferentialtreatmenttothearmy.Inordertoincreaseincomeandexpandtaxsources,CaracallaissuedtheAntoninusedictin212,grantingallfreecitizensintheempiretherightofRomancitizenship.In217,CaracallawaskilledbytheguardswhenhesetouttoParthia.

AfterCaracallawaskilled,thecommanderoftheGuards,Maclinus,establishedhimselfastheemperor,andhissonDiadomenianwastheco-emperor.AfterMaclinussucceededtothethrone,heacceptedextremelyunfavorableterms,endedthewarwithParthia,andreducedmilitaryexpenditures,whichledtodissatisfactionwiththearmy.In218,Severus’wifeandsisterJuliaMisaincitedarebellion,andbothMaclinusandDiadomenianwerekilledinAsiaMinor.

Misathenmadehis13-year-oldgrandsonElagabalustheemperor.ElgabalusworshipedtheEasterngods,waslicentious,ignoredstatepolitics,andhadaverypoorrelationshipwiththeSenateandthearmy.In222,MisaacquiescedinkillinghimbytheGuardsandmadehis14-year-oldgrandsonAlexanderSeverusemperor.DuringthereignofAlexanderSeverus,relationswiththeSenateimproved.In231,AlexanderSeveruswenttotheeasttofightagainsttheemergingempireofSasanianPersia.Thesituationimprovedslightly,andherushedtothewesttoresisttheGermanicinvadingsouth.In235,thearmyrebelledandAlexanderSeveruswaskilled.

Crisisclimax

Mainentry:Thethirdcenturycrisis

AfterthedeathofAlexanderSeverus,thearmyadoptedThracianMaximinusasemperor.Maximinuscamefromabarbarianandwasdespisedbyothers,sohetreatedtheSenateandthepeoplewithbrutalmethods.In238,theSenatesecretlyinstructedtheguardstokillhim.Inthesameyear,theSenateintroducedfouremperors,allofwhichwerekilled.GordianIII,whosubsequentlytookthethrone,wasonly13yearsoldandwasapuppetoftheGuards.In244,thearmysupportedPhiliptheArab.In247,Philiporganizedthecelebrationofthe1000thanniversaryofthefoundingofRome.In249,PhilipwaskilledbytherebelgeneralDecius.DeciusdiedinthewarwiththeGothsin251.DuringthereignofGallus,aprotractedplaguebrokeout.Gallusdiedatthehandsofsoldiersin253.TheascendedValerianandhissonGalienusledtwoarmies,oneresistingSassanidPersiaintheeast,andtheotherresistingtheGermansinthewest.Thiswasthefirsttodividetheempirefromeasttowest.In260,thegeneraloftheRhineregion,PersDumusestablishedhimselfasemperor,establishedtheGaulEmpire,andruledGaul,Britain,andmostofSpain.Inthesameyear,ValerianwascapturedwhilefightingPersia,buttheresultisunknown.In267,Palmyraintheeastbecameindependent,splittingpartoftheeasternprovinces.

Atthistime,thechaosoftheRomanEmpirereacheditsextreme.Theempirewasdividedintothree,andthecentralgovernmentwasalmostparalyzed.Theemperornotonlyhadtofaceexternalenemies,butalsosuppressedtherebelliousarmiesandrebelliouspeoplefromtimetotime.Inaddition,thearmycontinuestosupportthenewemperor,hopingformorerewards.Iftherewardisnotgenerous,theemperorwillbekilled.In268,GaryEnnusreformedthemilitary,dismissedothermilitarypositions,andestablishedanewreservearmystationedinMilan,withMilanasthemilitarycapitaloftheempire.ThereformedarmysuccessfullydefeatedtheEasternGothicoffensive.In269,theBhagadamovementbrokeoutintheGaulregionbyslavesandfarmers'uprisings.Theinsurgentsestablishedthemselvesasemperorsandmintedcoins,whichlasteduntil286.

TheIllyrianEmperors

Galiennuswaskilledbyhismenlessthanayearafterreformingthemilitary,andClaudiusIIcametothethrone.HedefeatedtheAlamanifirst,thendefeatedapowerfulGothicarmy,andwonthetitleof"BrotherFeatureServant".

ClaudiusIIdiedoftheplaguein270,andAurelianascendedthethrone.AurelianstrucktheGothsagaininPannoniaandendedtheinvasionoftheGoths.ThenheledthearmytodefeatthePalmyraEmpire,regainedAsiaMinorandSyria,thenattackedthecityofPalmyra,capturedPalmyraQueenZinobia,andtookPalmyrain273.Thecitywasrazedtotheground.Inthesameyear,theGaulEmperorTetricusI,inordertosuppressthedomesticuprising,appealedtoOlelianforhelp,expressinghiswillingnesstogiveupindependence,andGaul,BritainandSpainwerereintegratedintotheempire.Aurelianreunitedtheempire,sohewascalledthe"WorldRestorer".Inordertostrengthenthedefense,Aurelianbuiltanewwall20kilometerslongand6metershighforRome,andabandonedDaciainordertousethenaturaldangersoftheDanubetodefend.

In275,AurelianwaskilledduringanexpeditiontoSasanianPersia,andtheSenateappointedClaudiusTacitusasemperor.ThiswasthelasttimethattheSenateelectedanemperor.Tacitusdiedayearafterhisreign,andthearmysupportedProbus.ProbussmashedtheGermanicinvasionofGaulinthreewaysandexpelledtheVandalsfromtheBalkans.

In282,ProbuswaskilledandMarcoAureliusCarusascendedthethrone.CarusonceagaindefeatedtheGermansinthenorthandattackedPersia,onceoccupyingTessifon.In283,Carusdiedviolently,andhissonCarinussucceeded.In284,thecommanderoftheGuards,Diocletian,rebelledanddefeatedKarinusnearBelgradeandbecametheruleroftheempire.

Stabilityandreform

Mainentry:TheFourEmperors'Co-governmentSystem

AfterDiocletianbecameemperor,hechangedtheheadofstatetoarealmonarchy.Themonarchworeacrownandsilkrobe,andhissubjectswererequiredtobowdowntothemonarch;themonarchwascalled"Lord"andwasworshipedasagod.DiocletianclaimedtobetheincarnationofJupiter.Theimperialpowerhasreacheditslimit.In286,DiocletianawardedGeneralMaximianthetitleof"Augustus"andappointedhimtheco-emperorofthewesternpartoftheempire.In287,thecommanderoftheBritishFleet,Karlusius,rebelledandclaimedtheemperor,occupyingthenorthwestofBritainandGaul.Itwassettledin296.In288,DiocletiansuccessfullyconsolidatedtheEuphratesRiverdefenselineandwasawardedthetitleof"PersianConqueror"bytheSenate.Inthesameyear,heledhisarmybackwestfromAntioch,Syria,andwenttotheDanubetoassistMaximianwhowasinGaul.In290,theGaulsuppressionbanditendedandonceagainwenttoSyriatosuppresstherebellionoftheArabnomads.In291,repelledthenativeswhoinvadedtheempireintheupperreachesoftheNile.In292,hereturnedtotheDanubeandrepelledthenorthernGermanicbarbarianSalmatianswhohadgoneacrossHenan.In293,Diocletianfirstbegantoimplementthe"fouremperorsco-governancesystem",asfollows:

Title

Emperor’sname

Capital

District

Thefirstroundoffouremperorsco-governance

Direction

EasternEmpire

Augustus(EmperorZheng)

Diocletian

NicoMedea

AsiaMinor,Syria,PalestineandEgypt

Caesar(ViceEmperor)

Galerius

Belgradenearb>

DanubeSouthoftheDanubePannoniAsia、Mercia、ThraceandBalkanPeninsula

WesternEmpire

Augustus(TheEmperor)

Maximian

Milan

SouthoftheUpperDanube,Corsica,Sardinia,SicilyIsland,Algeria,TunisiaandLibya

Caesar(ViceEmperor)

ConstantiusI

Trier

Britain、Gaul

Diocletianstipulated:thetwoAugustus(primeemperor)intheeastandwestoftheempireeachappointaCaesar(deputyemperor),andAugustusreigned20yearslaterMustabdicate,succeededbytheoriginaltwoCaesarsasAugustus,andappointaCaesareach.Theimplementationofthefouremperors'co-governanceisnottodividetheempireintofourparts,buttoentrustthedefenseoftheempiretothefouremperors.Diocletian'spositionisstillthehighestamongthefour.

Diocletianfirstreducedthesizeoftheprovinces,dividedabout100provinces,andestablishedadministrativeregionstocommandmorethanadozenprovinces,andthelocalgovernorsdidnotholdmilitaryposts.Diocletianreformedthemilitaryanddividedthearmyintofrontierguardsandfieldforces.Thefrontierguardswereusedtoresistforeignenemyinvasions,andthefieldtroopswereusedtosuppresspeople'suprisingsandmilitarymutinies,aswellasmobileoperationsagainstlarge-scaleforeignenemies.Healsoreducedthesizeofthecorpsandincreasedthenumberofcorpsfordispatch.SinceDiocletiandividedtheempire,eachemperorhadalargenumberofsoldiers,whichgreatlyincreasedtheeconomicburdenoftheempire.Therefore,Diocletianfirstimplementedthenewtaxsystem,changedthecurrencysystem,adjustedprices,andpromulgatedthe"PriceOrder",buttheywerenotsuccessful.In297,Diocletian'sco-rulerGaleriusinvadedSassanidPersia,andin298,heoccupiedTessifon.In299,apeacetreatywasconcludedwithSassanidPersia,andRomegainedcontrolofnorthernMesopotamiaandArmenia.AfterDiocletianreignedfor20years,heabdicatedin305,whileMaximianalsoabdicated.

ConstantineI,whotookthethroneasAugustusinthewest,diedjustoverayearafterhereignedinBritain.HissonConstantineI(i.e.ConstantinetheGreat)Ascendedtothethronewiththesupportofthearmy.WhenConstantineIcametothethrone,heonlyoccupiedBritainandGaul.Italy,SpainandNorthAfricawerecontrolledbyMaximian’ssonMaxentius.In312,hedefeatedMaxentiusandunifiedthewest.

Intheeast,afterthedeathofAugustusGaleriusin311,Lisini,whoascendedthethrone,defeatedDeya,whooccupiedEgyptandpartoftheAsianterritories,andunifiedtheeast.In313,ConstantineIandLisiniissuedthe"MilanEdict"declaringChristianitylegal.In314,thetwoclashesbrokeout.LiXiniwasdefeatedandforcedtoabandontheEuropeanregionexceptThrace.In323,thetwofoughtagain,LiXinniwasdefeated,andConstantineIbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.

ZTEandtransformation

Mainentry:ConstantineDynasty

WhenConstantineIcametothethrone,hewasexhaustedallovertheempire.HeadoptedamethodsimilartoDiocletianandappointedhisthreesons,ConstantineIIandConstantine.TiusIIandConstantineIwerepartofCaesar’srulingempires:ConstantinetheGreatruledtheBalkansandtheBlackSea,ConstantineIIruledSpain,GaulandBritain,ConstantineTheusIIruledtheEastandEgypt,andConstantineIruledItalyandAfrica.ConstantineIreformedtheadministrativedivisionsanddividedthecountryintofourmajoradministrativeregions,oneundertheadministrativedistrict,andthenundertheprovince.Ontheeconomicside,Diocletian’spolicywascontinued,whichstipulatedoccupationalhereditary,fixedpeasantsontheland,andpromulgatedlawstoreaffirmthestatusofslaveowners.Intermsofmilitaryaffairs,theguardswereabolishedandreplacedbythePaladinCavalryGuards,andalargenumberofbarbarianswererecruitedintothearmy,whichcomprehensivelyimprovedthecombateffectivenessoftheRomanarmy.Heusedterrortoforceconscription,andthosewhorefusedtobecomeasoldiercouldbeputtodeath.Intermsofreligion,thefirstCouncilofNiceawasheldin325,whichdeterminedmanybasicChristiandoctrinesanddenouncedArianismasaheresy.AseriesofhisactionslaidthefoundationforthedominanceofChristianityinEuropeinthefuture.

Since324,ConstantineImadegreateffortstobuildthenewcapitalConstantinoplebesidetheBosphorus,knownasNewRome.Itwasinitiallycompletedin330years,anditsspecialgeographicalenvironmentandstrategicpositionwereanimportantreasonwhytheEasternRomanEmpiresurvivedthousandsofyears.In337,ConstantineIdiedandwasbaptizedbeforehisdeath.

AfterthedeathofConstantineI,theRomanEmpireimmediatelyfoughtforthethrone.ConstantineII,ConstantineI,andMagnentiuswerekilledoneafteranother.In353,ConstantiusIIbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.In361,Julian,theapostate,cousinofConstantiusII,rebelled.ConstantiusIIdiedonthewaytoconquerJulian,andJuliantookpower.UndertheinfluenceofNeo-Platonism,Julianimplementedananti-Christianpolicyafterheassumedthethroneandvigorouslysupportedpolytheism.HeaggressivelyattackedChristianity.Churcheswereburnedandlooted.Christiansweredrivenoutofthearmyandschools.HehimselfwroteabooktoattackChristianity.Ontheeconomicfront,Juliansucceededinstoppinginflation.Military,hedefeatedtheGermansandinvadedthePersianSassaniddynasty.In363,Julianwaskilledinbattle,andtheascendedJoviancancelledJulian'santi-Christianpolicy.

Decline

Mainentry:ValentinianDynasty

In364,Joviandied(probablyduetofoodpoisoning),DanubeofficerValentinianIwasmadeemperorbythearmy,andthenheappointedhisbrotherValenceasthecommunistpartyintheeasternpartoftheempire.Ruletheemperor.ValentinianIgarrisonedMilan,ValencegarrisonedConstantinople.In376,ValentinianIdiedandValentinianIIascendedthethrone.In378,ValencewaskilledinabattleagainsttheGothsinAdrianople,andtheempirewasgovernedbyGratianandTheodosiusI.WhenGratiandiedin383,TheodosiusImadepeacewiththeGoths,allowingthemtosettleintheterritory,jointhearmyandserveasofficials.In388,hedefeatedtheusurpersMagnusMaximusandFlavius​​Victorinthewest.In392,ValentinianIIdied(possiblyhangedhimself)inhispalaceinViena,southeastofGaul.

Mainentry:TheodosiusDynasty

In393,TheodosiusIdeclaredChristianitythestatereligion,andopposedallpaganismandheresy,closedpolytheistictemples,andbuiltanewChristianchurch.HebelievedthattheancientOlympicsviolatedChristiandoctrinesandwasanactivityofpagans,soheannouncedtheabolitionoftheancientOlympics.In394,TheodosiusIdefeatedEugenius,theusurperinthewest,andbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.ThiswasalsothelastreunificationoftheRomanEmpireaftermanydivisionsofeastandwest.Thisyear,thepopulationunderRomanrulemaybearound56million.In395,TheodosiusIdiedinMilan.Heonceagaindividedtheempireintotwoparts,theeastparttotheeldestsonArcadius,andthewestparttotheyoungestsonHornorius.

ThedisintegrationandcollapseoftheWesternRomanEmpire

Mainentry:TheWesternRomanEmpiresub>

Afterthe5thcentury,thewaveofEuropeanmigrationreachedapeak.Alaric,theleaderoftheVisigoths,constantlyinvadedtheRomanEmpireunderthestrongpressureoftheHuns,anomadicnationinNortheastAsia.Inthewinterof405,theAlliedforcesofAlaricandtheHunsbrokethroughtheimperialRhineline.Romehadnoeffectiveresistance,whichwasequivalenttogivingupmostofGaul.In407,theGeneralConstantineIIIstationedinBritainrebelled.TheWesternRomanEmperorHonoriustriedtogetAlarictoattackConstantineIII.Alaricdemanded4,000poundsofgoldasaprice.Uthagreed.Later,asHornoriusbrokehispromise,AlaricandtheHunsinvadedItaly,andHornoriusfledfromMilantoRavenna.AlaricwentsouthandsurroundedRome.

Atthistime,famineandplaguebrokeoutinRome.TheSenatehadtomakepeacewithAlaricandhandedover5,000poundsofgold,30,000poundsofsilver,andmanyvaluablesandtreasures.In409,thecoalitionofAlaricandtheHunssurroundedRomeforthesecondtimeanderectedapuppetemperor,andHornorius,whowashuddledinRavenna,retainedthethronewiththesupportoftheEasternRomanEmpire.In410,AlaricandtheHunssurroundedRomeforthethirdtime,andeventuallydefeatedit.Thecoalitionforceslootedthecityforthreedaysandreturnedwithgreatresults,whileRomesufferedadevastatingblow.Inthesameyear,alltheRomanlegionsstationedinBritainwithdrew,announcingtheendofRomanruleoverBritain.

Inthefollowingtenyears,theco-emperorConstantiusIIIofHonoriusbecamethemilitaryheadoftheempire,andtheempirewasstableforaperiodoftime.In418,theVisigothickingdomwasestablishedintheprovinceofAquitaineandthecapitalToulouse.ThiswasthefirstbarbariankingdomestablishedintheWesternRomanEmpire.In423,Honoriusdied,ValentinianIIIascendedthethrone,andhismotherGalaPlacidiawastheregent.

In439,theKingdomofVandal-AranwasestablishedinNorthAfrica,thecapitalofCarthage,andestablisheditsownnavy,constantlyattackingtheWesternRomanEmpirefromthesea.In451,theHungarianleaderAttilaledaninvasion,andwasrepelledbythefamousempire,Aetius,theVisigothicKingdomandotherGermans.Sincethen,Aetiushasrepeatedlyrepelledthebarbarianattacks.In454,PetroniusMaximuscolludedwithministerstofalselyaccuseAetiusofrebellion,andValentinianIIIbelievedittobetrueandmurderedAetiusinthepalace.Later,MaximuscolludedwithsoldierstomurderValentinianIIIandproclaimedhimselfemperor.In455,theleaderoftheVandals,Geselik,andtheHunstookadvantageofthechaostoinvadeRome.Maximuswaskilledandthecitywaslootedagain.

Sofar,theWesternRomanEmpirehasbeenunabletomaintain,onlylingering.Theeightlateremperorswereallpuppets,andtherealpowerwasinthehandsofbarbaricgenerals.Duringthe16yearsofLichmel’srule,Avitus,Mayorian,andLibiusSeveruswereabolished,andEmperorAntemius,whohadbeenerectedbytheEasternEmperor,waskilled,andAulibriuswasestablishedseparately.WhenGondobadwasinpower,hehelpedLiserius.In475,OrestmadehissonRomulusIIemperor.In476,thebarbariangeneralOdoacrebelledagainstOrest,deposedRomulusAugustus,declaredallegiancetotheEasternRomanEmperorZeno,andtransferredthepoweroftheWesternRomanEmpiretotheEasternRomanEmpire.Atthispoint,theWestThefalloftheRomanEmpire.ThedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpiremarkedthecollapseofslaveryinWesternEurope,andthehistoryofWesternEuropehassinceopenedanewpage.

Germanickingdoms

AfterthedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpire,theinvadingGermansestablishedsuccessivelyontheterritoryoftheWesternRomanEmpireTenkingdoms.In489,Theodoric,theleaderoftheOstrogoths,withthesupportoftheEasternRomanEmperorZeno,crossedtheAlpsandinvadedtheApennines.In493,TheodoricoccupiedRavenna,killedOdoac,establishedtheEasternGothicKingdom,andbecamethegovernoroftheEasternRomanEmpireinItaly.Infact,EasternRomedidnothavetheabilitytorestrainTheodoric.Throughaseriesofmarriages,TheodoricformedallianceswithotherGermanickingdoms.In534,theEasternRomanemperorJustinianIdestroyedtheVandalKingdom.In553,theEasternGothicKingdomwasdestroyed.In568,theLombardscrossedtheAlpsfromthenorth,invadedtheApenninesandestablishedtheLombardKingdom.In572,Paviawasestablishedasthecapital.EasternRomeonlyretainedRavennaandsomefragmentedterritoriesinsouth-centralItaly.In751,RavennawasoccupiedbytheLombards.In774,KingCharlestheGreatoftheFrankishKingdomdestroyedtheLombardKingdom.

b>FranceNorthern,GermanyWestern,post-expansion
ThekingdomestablishedbytheGermans(486years)

Countryname

Englishname

Location

EasternGothicKingdom

Ostrogoth

Pannonia、Mercia,thenenterItaly

FrankKingdom

Frank

now

TheKingdomofBurgundy

Bourgogne

TodayFranceSoutheast

VisigothKingdom

Visigoth

IberianPeninsulaMostoftoday'ssouthwesternFrance

SovietHuiKingdom

SuebiorSuevi

IberiaNorthwestofthepeninsula

TheKingdomofVandal-Aran

Vandals-Alan

nowTunisiaMost,AlgeriaandLibyapartofthecoastalland

area,Initsheyday,MediterraneanSeaSomeislands

KingdomofLombard(Afterthemid-6thcentury)

Lombardy

TodayAustria,NorthernItaly

Anglo-SaxonKingdoms

Anglo-Saxon

BritainSouthwestern

HruliKingdom

Heruli

Austriatoday

AlemanniKingdom

Alamanni,AllemanniorAlemanni

TodaySwitzerland,SouthernGermany

EmpireSuccession

  • EasternRomanEmpire(ByzantineEmpireb>)

AfterthedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpire,theEasternRomanEmpirebecametheactualsuccessoroftheRomanEmpire.In1453,Constantinople,thecapitaloftheEasternRomanEmpire,wascapturedbytheOttomanSultanMuhammadII.In1460,theterritoryoftheEasternRomanEmpireinMoriawasoccupiedbytheOttomanEmpire.In1461,theOttomanEmpiredestroyedtheTrabzonEmpire.Atthispoint,theEasternRomanEmpirewithdrewfromthestageofhistoryforever.

  • CharlemagneEmpire

In800,PopeLeoIIIcrownedCharlemagne,KingoftheCarolingiandynastyoftheFrankishKingdom,asthe"EmperoroftheRomans"inRome,andrecognizedtheCharlemagneEmpireasthesuccessoroftheRomanEmpire.In843,thethreesonsofCharlemagneandLouisthePioussignedtheTreatyofVerdun,whichsplittheempireintothreeparts.

  • HolyRomanEmpire

TheHolyRomanEmpireandtheRomanEmpireareactuallynotdirectandlegalRelationship.In962,KingOttoIoftheEastFrankishKingdomwascrownedtheEmperoroftheRomanEmpirebyPopeJohnXIIinRome,andtheHolyRomanEmpirerecognizedtheHolyRomanEmpireasthesuccessoroftheWesternRomanEmpire.Later,theEasternRomanEmpirealsorecognizeditsstatus.Until1806,theFrenchemperorNapoleonIorderedFranzIIoftheHabsburgdynastytoabandonthetitleofHolyRomanEmperoronAugust6,andonlyretainthetitleofAustrianEmperor.TheHolyRomanEmpirewasdisintegratedintotheAustrianEmpire,theRhineConfederation,etc.,proclaimingdisintegration.

  • RussianEmpire

In1472,IvanIIIoftheGrandDuchyofMoscowmarriedEastRomeSophia,thenieceofConstantineXI,thelastemperoroftheempire,declaredthatshehadinheritedtheEasternRomanorthodoxyandintroducedthestatereligionofEasternRomeintohercountry.Tothisday,RussiaisstillthecenteroftheglobalOrthodoxChurch.

In1547,GrandDukeIvanIVwascrownedbytheOrthodoxArchbishopMakkariandproclaimedtheemperor,becomingRussia'sfirsttsar.Theword"Czar"comesfromtheLatin"Caesar",implyingitspureblood.Atthesametime,inordertoalwaysremindtheworldthattheyarethelegalheirsoftheEasternRomanEmpire,theycallthemselvesthe"ThirdRome"andaddthedouble-headedeaglelogousedbyEasternRometothenationalemblem.

In1721,CzarPeterIofRussiaacceptedthetitleof"EmperorofAllRussia"andcalledhimself"Emperor".TsaristRussiawasrenamedtheRussianEmpireuntilthefalloftheRevolutioninFebruary1917.

Provinces

ThefollowingtableliststheprovincesoftheRomanEmpirearound120yearsago.

Provincesaredividedintothreecategories:SenateProvince(managedbytheSenate),EmperorProvince(managedbytheEmperor),andLocalProvince(managedbythelocalfinanceofficerorgovernor).

b>b>b>b>b>
TheprovincesoftheRomanEmpire(around120years)

Chinesename

Latinname

Establishmentyear

Classification

Generalarea

AchaeaProvince

Achaea

Theprevious146years

TheSenateProvince

SouthernGreece,Peloponneseregion

Egyptprovinces

Aegyptus

Thefirst30years

Localprovinces

Egypt

AfricaProvince

Africa

Theprevious146years

TheSenateProvinces

Tunisia

AlpesCottiae

AlpesCottiae

Theprevious14years

Localprovinces

TheborderbetweenItalyandFrance

CoastalAlpes

AlpesMaritimae

Theprevious14years

Localprovinces

ItalyandFranceborder,neartheMediterraneanSea

AlpesPoenninae

AlpesPoenninae

Theprevious14years

Localprovinces

Switzerland-Franceborder

PetraProvinceofArabia

ArabiaPetraea

105years

EmperorProvince

Jordan,andsouthernSyria

AsianProvince

Asia

Thefirst129years

TheSenateProvince

EasternAsiaMinor

LowerArmeniaProvince

ArmeniaInferior

114years

EmperorProvince

EastCoastoftheBlackSea

AssyriaProvince

Assyria

116years

EmperorProvince

NorthernIraq

BittiNiagaraProvince

Bithynia

Theprevious74years

TheEmperor'sProvince

NorthwestAsiaMinorb>

BritishProvince

Britannia

43years

Emperor'sProvince

Will,England

CappadociaProvince

Cappadocia

17years

EmperorProvince

EasternAsiaMinor

CiliciaProvince

Cilicia

Thefirst64years

TheEmperor'sProvince

SouthernAsiaMinor

KomageniProvince

Commagene

72years

EmperorProvince

SoutheastAsiaMinor

CordueneProvince

Corduene

Theprevious66years

TheEmperor'sProvince

KurdishRegion

TheprovincesofCorsicaandSardinia

CorsicaetSardinia

Thefirst231years

LocalProvinces

Corsica,Sardinia

CreteandCyrenaicaprovinces

CretaetCyrenaica

First30years

TheSenateProvince

Crete,northeasternLibya

ProvinceofCyprus

Cyprus

Theprevious58years

TheSenateProvince

Cyprus

DaciaProvince

Dacia

105years

EmperorProvince

Romania

DalmatiaProvince

Dalmatia

Previous32years

EmperorProvince

SouthernCroatia

EpirusProvince

Epirus

Thefirst146years

Localprovinces

WesternGreece

GalatianProvince

Galatia

first25years

EmperorProvince

Anatolia

GalliaAquitania

GalliaAquitania

87yearsago

EmperorProvince

CentralandSoutheasternFrance

BelgiumGaulProvince

GalliaBelgica

Top57Year

TheEmperor'sProvince

Belgium

LyonGaulProvince

GalliaLugdunensis

Theprevious87years

EmperorProvince

CentralandNorthernFrance

GalliaNarbonensis

GalliaNarbonensis

Theprevious118years

SeniorYuanProvince

SouthofFrance

LowerGermania

GermaniaInferior

90years

EmperorProvince

Netherlands

UpperGermania

GermaniaSuperior

90years

EmperorProvince

TheborderofFrance,GermanyandSwitzerland

SpainProvinceofBetica

HispaniaBaetica

14years

SeniorSenateProvince

SouthofSpain

SpainProvinceofLusitania

HispaniaLusitania

14years

EmperorProvince

Portugal

SpainProvinceofTarragona

HispaniaTarraconensis

Previous27years

EmperorProvince

MostofSpain

Italy

Italia

/

Native

Italy

JewishProvince

Iudaea

Thefirst63years

TheEmperor'sProvince

Israel

LikeniaProvince

Lycaonia

Thefirst64years

EmperorProvince

Anatolia

LyciaProvince

Lycia

43years

SeniorYuanProvince

SouthernAsiaMinor

MacedoniaProvince

Macedonia

Theprevious146years

ProvinceofSenateHospital

Macedonia

CaesareaProvinceofMauritania

MauretaniaCaesariensisp>

40years

LocalProvinces

NorthwestAlgeriaMinistry

TingitanaMauritania

MauretaniaTingitana

40years

Localprovinces

NorthernMorocco

MisiaProvince

Moesia

Thefirst29years

TheEmperor'sProvince

TheSouthBankoftheDanube

NorrickProvince

Noricum

Previous16years

EmperorProvince

Austria

NumidiaProvince

Numidia

Thefirst25years

TheEmperor'sProvince

NortheastCoastofAlgeria

OsloneProvince

Osroene

116years

Localprovinces

NorthernSyria

PannoniaProvince

Pannonia

20years?

EmperorProvince

Hungary

PamphyliaProvince

Pamphylia

Thefirst25years

Emperor'sProvince

SouthwestAsiaMinor

ThisAllprovinces

Pontus

Thefirst64years

EmperorProvince

NorthernAsiaMinor

RhetiaProvince

Raetia

15years

TheEmperor'sProvince

MostofSwitzerland

ProvinceofSicily

Sicilia

First241years

TheSenateProvince

Sicily

SofinaProvince

Sophene

Theprevious89years

TheEmperor'sProvince

Armenia

ProvincesofSyria

Syria

Thefirst64years

EmperorProvince

MostofSyria

TauricaProvince

Taurica

1stcentury

TheEmperor'sProvince

NorthShoreoftheBlackSea

ThraceProvince

Thrace

46years

EmperorProvince

NorthernGreece,SouthernBulgaria

Culture

Language

LatinistheRomanEmpireTheofficiallanguageisalsothelocallanguageoftheItalianregion.Duringtheimperialperiod,Latinwasdividedintoatleasttwocategories:classicalLatinandpopularLatin.ClassicalLatinisusedasawrittenlanguage,whilepopularLatinisgenerallyusedasaspokenlanguage.ClassicalLatinisverystableandhasnotchangedfromtheimperialperiodtotheMiddleAges.PopularLatinhasdialectsinallpartsoftheempire,withmanychanges,graduallyevolvingintoRomancelanguages.

AlthoughLatinistheofficiallanguageoftheempire,Greekisoneofthemainlanguages​​oftheempire,especiallyintheeasternprovincesoftheempire.EveninRome,Greekhasbecomethelanguageofeducationandtheupperclasslanguage.Greekisacommonlyusedlanguageinthefieldsofreligion(Christianity),science,andart.

Inthe4thcentury,Greekgraduallylostpowerinthewesternpartoftheempire,andLatinprevailed.Intheearly5thcentury,thepublicationofthestandardLatintranslationoftheBiblereflectedthissituation.TheWesternRomanEmpirealsograduallybegantorejectpeoplewhocouldspeakGreek.Thisresultedinaculturalsplitbetweentheeasternandwesternpartsoftheempire.GreekhasbeentheofficiallanguageoftheEasternRomanEmpiresince610.

Otherlanguages​​suchasAramaic,Coptic,Armenian,etc.arealsospokenintheempire.

NaturalScience

PlinytheElder(23-79),authorof37volumesof"NaturalHistory",whichcoversallaspectsofscienceatthattime,involvingastronomy,geography,Biology,medicine,agriculture,minerals,etc."NaturalHistory"waswrittenonthebasisofPlinytheElder'smanyyearsofreadingandreadingnotes.Thebookisnotclassifiedandrathermessy.Thegreatestachievementof"NaturalHistory"isthatitrecordsmorethan20,000variousthingsandextractsvariousdocuments.Therearemorethan2,000kinds,sothatmanypreciousscientificrecordsofthetimehavebeenpasseddown.Itisanextremelyrareencyclopediaworkinancienttimes.

Agriculture

TheSpanishColumella,authorof"AgriculturalTheory"in12volumes,talksaboutagriculturalandanimalhusbandrytechnologyandmanagementaswellassocialeconomy.ThisbookThebookhadagreatinfluenceonthemedievalmanor.

Medicine

ThefamousdoctorCelsusintheperiodofEmperorTiberius(30-45yearsago),authorof"MedicalEncyclopedia"8volumesAmongthem,volumes7-8recordmanyoperations,andtheyaredescribedindetail.Galen(129-199),afamousdoctorintheperiodofEmperorMarcoAurelius,servedasanimperialphysicianformanyyearsandwrotequiteafew.Galenusedmonkeyanatomytoinferthestructureofthehumanbody,creatingaprecedentinanatomy.Galenalsoputforwardthetheoryof"threeauras",namely"vitalityaura","naturalaura"and"soulaura"toexplainthephysiologicalmechanismofthehumanbody.Galen'spharmacybookintroducedvariousmedicinalmaterials,about820species,includinganimals,plantsandminerals.Galen’stheorywasregardedasaclassicbytheWestintheMiddleAgesandbecamethemainreferencematerialforAvicennauntilHarveyproposedthetheoryofbloodcirculationinthe17thcentury.

Astronomy

TheEgyptianastronomerPtolemy(85-168),authorof13volumesof"Astronomy".ThebookcollectsthemasterpiecesofancientGreco-Romanastronomy.Thebookusesageometricsystemtodescribethemotionofcelestialbodies,andhasastarmapincluding1022stars,whichisextremelycompleteinancienttimes.Inaddition,thebookalsodiscussesthecalculationofthecalendar,thecalculationoftheeclipseofthesunandthemoon,theproductionanduseofastronomicalinstruments,andsoon.However,becausePtolemybelievedinthe"geocentrictheory",inordertomakethistheorystand,hedesignedanextremelycomplexcelestialgeometrysystemtosolvesomeproblemsthatthecalculationsofthegeocentrictheorydidnotmatchthereality,andtheresultsofthecalculationswereroughlysimilartotheactualobservations.BeforeCopernicusproposedthe"heliocentrictheory",Ptolemy'sdoctrinewasdominantinEurope.

Geography

Strabo(64-23yearsago),authorof"Geography"in17volumes.The"knownworld"oftheRomansatthattimeisdescribedindetail,includingallpartsofEurope,WestAsiaandNorthAfrica,involvingthephysicalandhumangeographyofvariousplaces.Thebookalsodiscussestheimpactoftheenvironmentontheeconomiclifeofvariousplacesandthestudyofcities..Beforethegreatdiscoveryofgeography,thisbookwasthemostdetailedgeographyworkintheWest.

Historiography

ThehistorianoftheOctavianperiod,LiWei(59-17yearsago),authorof"HistoryofRomeSincetheFoundingoftheCity"142volumes,36volumescurrentlyinexistence,narratinglegendsRomulusinChinaestablishedthecityofRometo9yearsofhistory.ItisthefirstgeneralhistoryofWesternhistoriography.

Taxito(55-120years),authorof12volumesof"History",mainlynarratingthehistoryoftheFlaviandynasty(69-96).Tacitusispoliticallyinclinedtorepublicans,andisextremelyopposedtotheemperorandauthoritarianrule.Inaddition,thereare"BiographyofAgulikola","Germania","Orator'sDialogue"and"Chronicle"andotherworkshandeddown,allofwhichhaveextremelyhighhistoricalandliteraryvalue.

Suvitonius(approximately69-122yearslater),whoselifeinformationismainlyderivedfromPlinytheYounger’s"Letters",authorof"TheTwelveEmperorsofRome",withbiographyTheformdescribesthetwelvemonarchsatthebeginningoftheRomanEmpire,focusingonportrayinganecdotes,butthehistoriographylacksseriousness.

Appian(about95-about165),authorof"HistoryofRome".ThetopbeganintheeraofRomankings,andthebottomendedintheperiodofEmperorTrajanatthebeginningofthe2ndcentury,coveringnearly900yearsofhistory.

ArianofNicomedea,authorof"Alexander'sExpedition",isthemostdetailedbiographyofAlexandertheGreatinexistence.

AmianusMarcelinus(330-395),Antiochian,authorof"HistoryoftheLateRomanEmpire",narratingthebeginningoftheAntoniandynastyin1996to378ThehistoryofEmperorValence'sdefeatin1year.Thelast18volumesofthebook,namelyvolumes14-31,recordthehistoryoftheRomanEmpirefrom354to378.Thefirst13volumesarebasicallyexcerptsfromotherexistinghistoricalbooks;thenext18volumesaremainlythehistoryexperiencedbytheauthorhimself,sothecontentisdetailedandthewritingisvivid.Itisthemostimportantprimitivehistoricalbookaboutthelateclassicaleraandtheearlynationalmigration.Becausetheauthorisanexperiencedprofessionalmilitaryofficer,thedescriptionofthewarinthebookisparticularlyoutstanding,anditisrecognizedasthebestclassicalmilitaryhistoryworksinceCaesar.

ScienceofLaw

Thesecond-centuryjuristGayo,authorofTheLadderofLaw.

Inthethirdcentury,juristscompiledtheGregorianCodeandtheHermogonianCode,whichpreservedalargenumberofedictsanddecreesoftheemperor.Romanlawhasaprofoundimpactontheformulationoflawsinmodernsociety.Thelawsofcivillawcountries,suchasdebtlawandpropertylaw,allhavetheshadowofRomanlaw.

Architecture

Theamphitheater(alsoknownastheColosseumandColosseum),builtintheFlavianDynasty,hasthreearchesandcanholdtensofthousandsPeoplearetheplacewheregladiatorialperformancesareheld.Complexundergroundfacilitiesarebuiltforgladiatorialperformances,andwatercanevenbeusedfornavalbattleperformances.

TheArcdeTriomphealsooriginatedinRomeandwasbuiltfortheemperor’striumph.TherearethreetriumphalarchesintheancientcityofRome.OnewasbuiltbyTitusin71,onewasbuiltbySeverusin203,andtheotherwasbuiltbyConstantinetheGreatin315,withexquisitereliefs.

Literature

Reference:AncientRomanLiterature

Virgil,apoetintheOctavianperiod(70yearsago-19yearsago),wrote10earlyworks"Pastoral",mainlysingingpastorallife.Inthefirst29years,Virgilpublished4volumesof"IdyllicPoems"(alsotranslated"AgriculturalPoems"),whichmainlytalkedaboutagriculturalproductionandalsosangtheidyllicscenery.Thefirstvolumeisaboutgrowingcrops,thesecondvolumeisaboutgrowingfruittrees,thethirdvolumeisaboutraisinglivestock,andthefourthvolumeisaboutraisingbees.Inhislateryears,hewrotetheepic"Aeneas"(alsotranslatedas"Iniat")in12volumes,narratingthestoryoftheRomanmythologicalheroAeneaswhoescapedfromTroyandcametoItalyandbecameking.

ThepoetHorace,authorof"Anthem",singsthepraisesofOctavian.

Ovid(43-14yearsago),famousforlovepoems,becamefamousas"LoveSongs"with49poemsin3volumes.Itisacollectionoflovepoems.Heisalsotheauthorof21"LadiesLetters",whichisaloveletterwrittenbyOvidbasedonthemythologyoftheheroineinthelovestory.Ovid's"Kamasutra"wassentencedtoexileintheBlackSearegionbecauseitviolatedOctavian'spolicyof"clarifyingcustoms".Ovid'srepresentative,asalongpoem"TheMetamorphosis,"waswrittenapproximatelyduringtheexileperiod.Itrewrittenmanymythsandlegends.Theplotischangeable,theimaginationispeculiar,anditisbetterthanpsychologicaldescription.

Philosophy

TheNeo-Stoicphilosophyprevailedduringtheimperialperiod.ThemainphilosophersareSenecaandEmperorMarcoAurelius,whopreachedfatalismandasceticism.

Seneca(from4to65yearsago),EmperorNero’steacher,believedthatthepurposeofphilosophywastoleadpeopletovirtueandadvocatedrestrainingdesireandpursuingmorality.However,Senecahimselfdidnotagreewithwhathesaidandmadeafortune.EmperorMarcoOlekepta"MeditationRecord",advocatingpatienceandrestraint.

Afterthecrisisofthethirdcentury,Neo-Platonismconcentratedonthemysticismofthetime.RepresentativesincludePlotinusandProklo.TocallGodtheoriginoftheworldisanabsolutelyinfiniteexistenceandcannotbeknown;andthehumanbodyistheoriginofsin,andhumansmustgetridofthefleshinordertocommunicatewithGodandobtainthetruth.Thisisthedoctrineof"theunityofmanandgod".

InChristianity,aninitialtheologycalled"thetheologyofthegodfather"appeared,andtherepresentativefigureisSt.Augustine.SaintAugustinewrote"OntheCityofGod","Confessions",etc.,incorporatingNeo-PlatonismintotheChristiandoctrine.Thepatristicphilosophyusesphilosophytodemonstratemanybasicdoctrinestoday,includingtheism,Trinitarianism,creationism,originalsintheory,redemptiontheory,heavenlytheory,andsoon.

Diplomacy

TheEurasiancontinentduringtheRomanEmpire(2photos)

Atthebeginning,Romeonlytradedanddiplomacywithsomesmallneighboringcountries,Therangeissmall.From138BCto119BC,EmperorWuoftheHanDynastysentZhangQiantotheWesternRegionstwiceandindirectlystartedtradewithRomethroughtheSilkRoad;BanchaointheEasternHanDynastydispatchedGanYingtoDaqin,butonlyreachedthePersianGulfandreturnedwithoutsuccess;Accordingtothe"BookoftheLaterHanDynasty",in166,KingAnDun(ieRomanEmperorMarcoAurelius)firstsentenvoystoLuoyang,thecapitalofHanDynasty,andpresentedgiftssuchasivoryandrhinohornfromEmperorHuanoftheHanDynasty(notconfirmed,itmaybeRomanBymerchants).Thetwosidesalsotransferredtheirownproductsandtechnologiestoeachother,whichpromotedtheexchangeofmaterialandspiritualcivilizationsbetweentheEastandtheWest,whichgreatlybenefitedthepeopleoftheEastandtheWest.TheHanDynastyusedsilk,tea,andporcelaininexchangeforgems,spices,medicinalmaterials,andglasswarefromRest,Greece,Rome,andMacedonia.RomanmerchantsalsotradedfamousproductssuchasChinesesilkinexchangeforOrientalgems,jadeite,kapok,andIndianrhinohornsandivory.

Military

Reference:RomanLegion

Inthefirst29years,Octaviancarriedoutmilitaryreformsandestablishedastandingarmy.

ThemaintypesofarmsoftheRomanarmyareheavyinfantryandcavalry.TheRomanheavyinfantrywasmainlyequippedwithlances,daggers,largeshields,andarmor.Armorisgenerallymadeofcoppermetalsheetandleather,andtherearealsochainarmorandscalearmorinthelaterperiod.Inadditiontobasicequipment,thecavalryisalsoequippedwithabeautifullycraftedcopperhelmet.TheearlymetalequipmentoftheRomanarmywasgenerallymadeofbronze.

ThebasicunitoftheRomanarmyistheLegion,withauxiliarytroopsandmercenaries.Thereisacenturionunderthelegion,andthecaptainofthecenturioniscalledthecenturion.TheRomanarmyhadstrictdisciplineandrequiredsubordinatestoobeytheirsuperiorsabsolutely.Therearealsovariouspenaltiesinthearmy,andtheescapingarmywillbesubjecttothe"elevensmashingandkillinglaw,"thatis,onepersonoutoftenwillbeexecuted.InthelaterperiodoftheRomanEmpire,thearmywasmainlycomposedofbarbarians,withdepravedmilitarydisciplineandlowcombateffectiveness.

Economy

Agriculture

IntheeconomyoftheRomanEmpire,agriculturewasthemostimportant.Themainfoodcropoftheempirewaswheat,whichwasgrownthroughouttheempire,especiallytheeasternprovinces.Themaincashcropsoftheempireareolivesandgrapes,andtheMediterraneanregionisthemaincultivationareaforgrapesandolives.Theempireimportedalargeamountoffood,wine,andoilfromtheEasternProvinceeveryyear,andtheEasternProvincewasalsoanimportantsourceofimperialtaxes.Theempire’sagriculturalproductionefficiencywasnothigh,andthesecond-zonecroprotationwascommon,andtheuseofswing-rodstepplowsforarablelandwasalsomorecommonthantheuseofsplitplows.Theagriculturalindustryoftheempireconsistedmainlyoflarge-scalemanors,usingslavesorsubordinateagriculturallabor(whichflourishedafterthe3rdcentury),andsmallfarmers(self-cultivatingfarmers)almostdisappeared.Inthelaterperiodoftheempire,theseestatesseverelyaffectedthetaxesoftheempire.

Handicraft

ThecurrencyoftheRomanEmpire(22photos)

InthehandicraftindustryoftheRomanEmpire,potterymakingwasthemostimportant,becauseofthefoodandwinePotterymustbeusedforthetransportationofcommoditiessuchasoilandoil.TheItalianpotterycenterismainlyinPozzuoli.ThepotteryindustryinGaulisalsoverycompetitive,andtheGaulsalsoinventedthedouble-earedurn.TheminingindustryinSpainisverydevelopedandismonopolizedbythestate.Inthetextileindustry,Padua'swoolencloth,Spanishwoolcloak,andGaul'scoatwithahoodareallwell-known.Spainalsohasahandicraftindustryformakingfishsauce,whichisaseasoningmadefromfish.

Thelineageoftheemperors

TheemperorsoftheRomanEmpire(27-284yearsago)(54photos)

Theheadsystem

JuliaClaudiusdynasty

Reigning

Englishname

p>

Chinesename

Remarks

Theprevious27-14years

Augustus

Octavian

14-37years

Tiberius

Tiberius

37-41years

Caligula

Caligula

OriginalnameGaiusCaesar,Caligulaisthenickname,whichmeans"littleboots"

BeginthehabitoftheRomanemperortoproclaimhimselfagod

Assassinated

41-54years

Claudius

Claudius

MaybethequeenLittleAgripinaPoisonedtodeath

54-68years

Nero

Nero

Suicide

TheFourEmperorsCivilWar(TheYearoftheFourEmperors)

Present

Englishname

Chinesename

Remarks

68-69

Galba

Galba

MurderedbyOtto

69years

Otho

Otho

defeated,suicide

69years

Vitellius

Vitellius

Destroyedandexecuted

FlaviDynasty

InPlace

Englishname

中文名

备注

69年－79年

Vespasian

韦帕芗

79年－81年

Titus

提图斯

79年，维苏威火山爆发，埋没庞贝城

81年－96年

Domitian

图密善

被刺杀

安敦尼王朝

在位

英文名

中文名

备注

96年－98年

Nerva

涅尔瓦

98年－117年

Trajan

图拉真

117年－138年

Hadrian

哈德良

138年－161年

AntoninusPius

安敦尼·庇护

161年－180年

MarcusAurelius

马可·奥勒留

与维鲁斯为共治皇帝

161年－169年

LuciusVerus

路奇乌斯·维鲁斯

与马可·奥勒留为共治皇帝

175年

AvidiusCassius

阿维狄乌斯·卡西乌斯

篡位者，统治埃及和叙利亚

被一位百夫长所杀

177年－180年

Commodus

康茂德

与马可·奥勒留为共治皇帝

180年－192年

中毒后被一摔跤手掐死

193年内乱期

在位

英文名

中文名

备注

193年

Pertinax

佩蒂纳克斯

被士兵杀死

193年

DidiusJulianus

尤利安努斯

被近卫军杀死

塞维鲁王朝

在位

英文名

中文名

备注

193年－211年

SeptimiusSeverus

塞维鲁

193年－194年/195年

PescenniusNiger

奈哲尔

叙利亚的争位者

193年/195年－197年

ClodiusAlbinus

阿尔拜努斯

不列颠的争位者

198年－217年

Caracalla

卡拉卡拉

与盖塔为共治皇帝

209年－211年

Geta

盖塔

与卡拉卡拉为共治皇帝

被卡拉卡拉杀死

217年－218年

Macrinus

马克里努斯

与迪亚杜门尼安为共治皇帝

被处死

217年－218年

Diadumenian

迪亚杜门尼安

与马克里努斯为共治皇帝

被处死

218年－222年

Elagabalus

埃拉伽巴路斯

被刺杀

222年－235年

AlexanderSeverus

亚历山大·塞维鲁

被叛乱士兵杀死

三世纪危机高潮时的皇帝

在位

英文名

中文名

备注

235年－238年

MaximinusThrax

色雷斯人马克西米努斯

被军队杀害

238年

GordianI

戈尔迪安一世

与戈尔迪安二世为共治皇帝

自杀

238年

GordianII

戈尔迪安二世

与戈尔迪安一世为共治皇帝

阵亡

238年

PupienusMaximus

普皮恩努斯

与巴尔比努斯为共治皇帝

被近卫军杀死

238年

Balbinus

巴尔比努斯

与普皮努斯为共治皇帝

被近卫军杀死

238年－244年

GordianIII

戈尔迪安三世

被杀

240年

Sabinianus

萨宾尼亚努斯

自立为帝

战败

244年－249年

PhiliptheArab

阿拉伯人菲利普

被德基乌斯杀死

248年

Pacatianus

帕卡提亚努斯

自立为帝

被士兵杀死

248年

Iotapianus

伊奥塔皮亚努斯

争位者

248年

Silbannacus

希尔班纳库斯

篡位者

249年－251年

Decius

德基乌斯

阵亡

249年－252年

Priscus

普里斯库斯

在东部自立为帝

250年

Licinianus

李锡尼亚努斯

争位者

251年

HerenniusEtruscus

伊特鲁里亚的赫伦尼乌斯

阵亡

251年

Hostilian

霍斯蒂利安

与加卢斯为共治皇帝

死于瘟疫

251年－253年

Gallus

加卢斯

被士兵杀死

251年－253年

Volusianus

沃鲁西安努斯

与加卢斯为共治皇帝

被士兵杀死

253年

Aemilianus

埃米利安努斯

被士兵杀死

253年－260年

Valerian

瓦勒良

与加里恩努斯为共治皇帝

出征波斯萨珊王朝战败，被俘

253年－260年

Gallienus

加里恩努斯

与瓦勒良为共治皇帝

260年－268年

被杀

260年

Saloninus

萨洛尼努斯

与加里恩努斯为共治皇帝

被杀

258年－260年

Ingenuus

因格努乌斯

自立者

260年

Regalianus

雷加里安努斯

自立者

260年－261年

MacrianusMajor

大马克里亚努斯

自立者

阵亡

260年－261年

MacrianusMinor

小马克里亚努斯

自立者

阵亡

260年－261年

Quietus

奎伊图斯

争位者

261年

MussiusAemilianus

穆斯乌斯·埃米利安努斯

自立者

268年

Aureolus

奥里奥路斯

自立者

向克劳狄二世投降

高卢帝国皇帝（260年-274年）(5张)

高卢帝国

在位

英文名

中文名

备注

260年－269年

Postumus

波斯杜穆斯

建立高卢帝国

269年

Laelianus

莱利阿努斯

自立为高卢帝国皇帝

269年

Marius

马里乌斯

269年－271年

Victorinus

维克托利努斯

270年－271年

Domitianus

多米提安努斯

自立为高卢帝国皇帝

271年－274年

TetricusI

泰特里库斯一世

向奥勒良投降，高卢帝国灭亡

273年－274年

TetricusII

泰特里库斯二世

与泰特里库斯一世为共治皇帝

伊利里亚诸帝

在位

英文名

中文名

备注

268年－270年

ClaudiusII

克劳狄二世

死于瘟疫

270年

Quintillus

昆提卢斯

与奥勒良为共治皇帝

自杀

270年－275年

Aurelian

奥勒良

被近卫军杀死

271年

Septimius

赛普蒂米乌斯

在达尔马提亚自立为帝

被士兵杀死

275年－276年

ClaudiusTacitus

克劳狄·塔西佗

病死或被杀

276年

Florianus

弗洛里安努斯

被杀

276年－282年

Probus

普罗布斯

被士兵杀死

280年

Saturninus

萨图尼努斯

自立为帝

被士兵所杀

280年

Proculus

普罗库鲁斯

争位者

被普罗布斯所杀

280年

Bonosus

博诺苏斯

自立为帝

被普罗布斯击败，自杀

282年－283年

MarcusAureliusCarus

马可·奥勒留·卡鲁斯

死因不明

283年－285年

Carinus

卡里努斯

与努梅里安为共治皇帝

被杀

283年－284年

Numerian

努梅里安

与卡里努斯为共治皇帝

罗马帝国皇帝2(29张)

君主制

四帝共治

在位

英文名

中文名

备注

284年－305年

Diocletian

戴克里先

与马克西米安同为奥古斯都，掌管东部

286年－305年

Maximian

马克西米安

与戴克里先同为奥古斯都，掌管西部

被迫自杀

305年－311年

Galerius

伽列里乌斯

与君士坦提乌斯一世同为恺撒

305年，成为奥古斯都，掌管东部

与塞维鲁斯为共治皇帝

305年－306年

ConstantiusIChlorus

君士坦提乌斯一世

与伽列里乌斯同为恺撒

305年，成为奥古斯都，掌管西部

与伽列里乌斯为共治皇帝

306年－307年

SeverusII

塞维鲁斯（塞维鲁二世）

305年，成为恺撒

306年，成为奥古斯都，掌管西部

与伽列里乌斯为共治皇帝

306年－312年

Maxentius

马克森提乌斯

306年，自立为皇帝

被君士坦丁一世打败并废黜

308年－324年

Licinius

李锡尼

308年，成为奥古斯都

324年，被君士坦丁一世打败，被迫退位后被杀

308年

DomitiusAlexander

多米提乌斯·亚历山大

自立为帝

310年－313年

MaximinusDaia

马克西米努斯·代亚

305年，成为恺撒，掌管东部

310年，自立为奥古斯都，与李锡尼分治东部

自杀

316年－317年

ValeriusValens

瓦莱里乌斯·瓦伦斯

与李锡尼为共治皇帝

被君士坦丁一世处死

324年

Martinianus

马提尼安努斯

324年，成为奥古斯都，掌管西部

与李锡尼为共治皇帝

被杀

不列颠帝国皇帝（286年-296年）(2张)

不列颠帝国

在位

英文名

中文名

备注

286年－293年

Carausius

卡劳修斯

建立不列颠帝国

被阿勒克图斯所杀

293年－296年

Allectus

阿勒克图斯

被君士坦提乌斯一世击败

君士坦丁王朝

在位

英文名

中文名

备注

306年－337年

ConstantineItheGreat

君士坦丁一世

原为四帝共治中的西帝，后击败其他诸帝，成为帝国唯一的统治者

第一位信仰基督教的皇帝

337年－340年

ConstantineII

君士坦丁二世

君士坦丁一世死后，国分为三，掌管西部

阵亡

337年－361年

ConstantiusII

君士坦提乌斯二世

君士坦丁一世死后，国分为三，掌管东部

337年－350年

Constans

君士坦斯一世

君士坦丁一世死后，国分为三，掌管中部

被马格嫩提乌斯所杀

350年－353年

Magnentius

马格嫩提乌斯

篡位者

自杀

350年

Vetriano

维特里亚诺

自立为帝

350年

Nepotianus

尼波提亚努斯

自立为帝

361年－363年

JuliantheApostate

背教者尤利安

出征波斯萨珊王朝阵亡

最后一位信仰罗马多神教的皇帝

363年－364年

Jovian

约维安

暴死

瓦伦蒂尼安王朝

在位

英文名

中文名

备注

364年－375年

ValentinianI

瓦伦提尼安一世

西帝

与瓦伦斯、格拉提安为共治皇帝

364年－375年

Valens

瓦伦斯

东帝

与瓦伦提尼安一世、格拉提安为共治皇帝

375年－378年

与格拉提安、瓦伦提尼安二世为共治皇帝

与哥特人作战战败，阵亡

365年－366年

Procopius

普罗科皮乌斯

篡位者

被瓦伦斯处死

367年－379年

Gratian

格拉提安

与瓦伦提尼安一世、瓦伦斯、瓦伦提尼安二世为共治皇帝

379年－383年

与狄奥多西一世、瓦伦提尼安二世为共治皇帝

被叛军所杀

375年－379年

ValentinianII

瓦伦提尼安二世

与瓦伦斯、格拉提安为共治皇帝

379年－392年

与格拉提安、狄奥多西一世为共治皇帝

自杀或被杀

383年－388年

MagnusMaximus

马格努斯·马克西穆斯

西部的篡位者

被狄奥多西一世杀死

386年－388年

FlaviusVictor

弗拉维乌斯·维克托

马格努斯·马克西穆斯之子

被狄奥多西一世杀死

392年－394年

Eugenius

欧根尼乌斯

西部的篡位者

阵亡

狄奥多西王朝

在位

英文名

中文名

备注

379年－392年

TheodosiusI

狄奥多西一世

与格拉提安、瓦伦提尼安二世为共治皇帝

392年－395年

统一帝国

西罗马帝国皇帝(16张)

西罗马帝国

在位

英文名

中文名

备注

395年－423年

Honorius

霍诺里乌斯

与君士坦提乌斯三世为共治皇帝

409年－415年

PriscusAttalus

普里斯库斯·阿塔卢斯

自立为帝

407年－411年

ConstantineIII

君士坦丁三世

争位者

409年－411年

ConstansII

君士坦斯二世

争位者

411年－413年

Jovinus

约维努斯

争位者

412年－413年

Sebastianus

塞巴斯蒂安努斯

争位者

421年

ConstantiusIII

君士坦提乌斯三世

与霍诺里乌斯为共治皇帝

423年－425年

Joannes

约翰尼斯

争位者

425年－455年

ValentinianIII

瓦伦提尼安三世

被杀

455年

PetroniusMaximus

佩特罗尼乌斯·马克西穆斯

被杀

455年－456年

Avitus

阿维图斯

被废

457年－461年

Majorian

马约里安

被废

461年－465年

LibiusSeverus

利比乌斯·塞维鲁

被废

467年－472年

Anthemius

安特米乌斯

被处死

472年

Olybrius

奥利布里乌斯

473年－474年

Glycerius

格利凯里乌斯

退位

474年－475年

JuliusNepos

朱利乌斯·尼波斯

退位

475年－480年

在达尔马提亚为帝

被杀

475年－476年

RomulusAugustulus

罗慕路斯·奥古斯都

被蛮族军队首领奥多亚克废黜

Roman Empire

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