Definition
Psychologyfirstoriginatedfromphilosophy,andseparatedfromphilosophytoformanindependentresearchdiscipline.Itisthescienceofcognitionandanalysisofhumanself-thinkingandbehaviorpatterns,andstudyingthelawsofpsychologyandbehaviorofhowhumansperceiveexternalinformationandhowtoprocessinformationinternally.(Note:Ithasalwaysbeendifficultforthepsychologycommunitytogiveanaccurateconceptof"psychology".Thisismyunderstandingofmypredecessors'interpretationsinmymanyyearsofresearchinpsychology.Pleasecorrectmeifthereisanythinginappropriate.)
Theoriginofhistory
AncientChinesePsychologicalThoughts*ModernChinesePsychologyHistory*WesternPsychologyHistory*SovietPsychologyHistory*JapanesePsychologyHistory
ImportantPsychologicalSystemsandSchools:AssociativePsychology,ConstructivePsychology,WürzburgSchool,MotivationalPsychology,FunctionalPsychology,Psychoanalysis,NewPsychoanalysis,FreudGermanism,GestaltPsychology,GestaltPsychology,PavlovianTheory,ConnectionistPsychology,BehavioristPsychology,NewBehaviorism,InstigationPsychology,DynamicPsychology,SocialCulturalHistorySchool,TopologicalPsychology,GenevaSchool,PiagetSchool,CognitivePsychology,HumanisticPsychology,Phrenology,etc.
Organizations:InternationalFederationofPsychologicalSciences,InternationalAssociationofAppliedPsychology,InternationalAssociationofInterculturalPsychology,ChinesePsychologicalAssociation,ChineseSocialPsychologicalAssociation,etc.
Repraesentativas figuras
Confucius,Mozi,Mencius,Gaozi,Xunzi,HanFei,DongZhongshu,WangChong,LiuShao,FanZhen,WangAnshi,ErCheng,ChengHao,ChengYi,ZhuXi,WangShouren,WangTingxiang,LiZhi,WangFuzhi,YanYuan,LiuZhi,DaiZhen,WangQingren,GongZizhen,ChenDaqi,AiWei,TangYue,ZhangYaoxiang,WangJingxi,LuZhiwei,GuoYicen,GaoJuefu,XiaoXiaorong,PanShu,GuoRenyuan,SunGuohua,ChenLi,ZhouXiangeng,HuangYi,RuanJingqing,HuJinan,ZuoRenxia,ZhuZhixian,DingZan,CaoRichang,ZhangShuzu,LiuZhaoji,ChenYuanhui,LinChuanding,LiuFan,JingQicheng,LiuYingmao,YangGuoshu,AlexDodd,Hobbes,T.Descartes,R.Locke,J.Berkeley,G.Herbart,JFWeber,EHMuller,JPFechner,GTDarwin,C.Spencer,H.Helmholtz,H.vonGalton,F.SechenovWundt,W.Brentano,F.Ribo,T.-A.James,W.Hall,S.PavLoveEbbinghaus,H.Mueller,GEFreud,S.Bekhterev,BMBinay,A.YuanliangYujiroYane,P.Cartel,JMKulpe,O.MGermany,GHSpearman,CEMatsumotoYitaroTichenna,EBWoodworth,RSAdler,A.MaiDugu,W.Cannon,WBSondike,EL.Jung,CGWatson,JBKornilov,KHWalloon,HPHBiller,K.Wertheimer,M.Pieron,H.Hull,C.Kovka,K.Bartlett,FCPauline,EGLe,W.RubinsteinMoreno,JLRushley,KSLewin,K.Allport,FHSullivan,HSVigotskyPiaget,J.Allport,G.Murphy,G.Frome,E.Luria,APRogers,C.Eriksson,E.LeonJiefu,AHSkinner,BFGibson,JJMaslow,A.Eysenck,HJSimon,HAFestinger,L.Bandura,A.etc.
Mainworks
"XueJi", "YueJi", "CharacterHistory", "ShenMiaoLun", "GuanYinzi", "PsychophysicalOutline", "PhysiologicalPsychologyOutline", "Principles Psychology", Interpretatio Dreams", "PsychologyTextbook", "AnimalWisdom", "Introductionto Psychoanalysis" ", "In Visum Behavioristarum "Psychology of Humanitatis," "Type psychologicae", "HumanBehavior", "Filii Language et Cogitandi", "Liberi Psychologiae Require", "Notae de Function of the Two Hemispheres of the Brain", Humanabilitas," "Humans", Animae, Animae, Psychology", "Experimental-Hansiae, Psychology, " PrinciplesofGestaltPsychology","ArtisticPsychology","TheSecondRevisedBinet-SimonTestInstructions","ExperimentalPsychology","TheBehaviorofOrganisms","NewApproachestoPsychoanalysis","EscapefromFreedom","PrinciplesofGeneralPsychology","FromActiontoThought","PrinciplesofBehavior:AnIntroductiontoBehavioralTheory","TheProblemofChineseCharacters","PrinciplesofEpistemologyofGenesis, Enchiridion Experimentalis Psychologia, Scientia et Humana Behavior, Interpersonalis Theory of Psychiatry, Progressio fAdvancedMentalFunctionis, Patterns et Growthof Personae, De Humana Growth: ATherapist's Visum Psychologiae, GeneralPsychologia, "Scientia Psychologia", Doctrinae Psychologiae, Patterns et Crescentia Personae, De Humanitate, De Humana Growth: ATherapist's View of Psychotherapy, "GeneralPsychologia", "ScientificPsychologia", "Cognitiva Psychologia", Patterns et Growthof Personae, De Humana Growth: Atherapist's Visum Psychologiae Generalis Psychology", "ScientificPsychology" EducationalPsychology", "Outline of WesternPsychologyHistory", "WesternModernHistory of Psychology", "Methods et Theoretical IssuesofPsychology", "Historia ChinesePsychology", "Historia de ChildPsychology", "NewDevelopments in WesternPsychology", etc.
Categoria
ExperimentalPsychology
ExperimentalPsychology:Itistheearliestdevelopedbranchofpsychology.Itusesscientificexperimentalmethodstostudytheearlydevelopmentofscientificpsychology.Thosetraditionaltopics.Suchasfeelings,perceptions,learning,motivationandemotions.
CognitivePsychology
CognitivePsychology:Dedicatedtothestudyofhumanadvancedmentalprocesses,suchasmemory,reasoning,informationprocessing,language,problemsolving,decision-makingandcreativeactivities.Usescientificcreativemethodstoexplorethelawsofinternalpsychologicalactivities.
PersonalityPsychology
PersonalityPsychology:Studyingtheuniquepsychologicalcharacteristicsofindividualsandthestabilitycharacteristicsofindividualbehaviors,andalsoexploringthepsychologicalfactorsofpersonalityformationandmeasuringpersonalitycharacteristics.Evaluationandtraining.
SocialPsychology
SocialPsychology:Mainlystudiesinterpersonalbehaviorandthecontrolandinfluenceofsocialforcesonbehavior.
DevelopmentalPsychology
DevelopmentalPsychology:Researchontheoccurrenceanddevelopmentofpsychology.Generally,people’sentirelifecourseisusedastheresearchobjecttoexplorethedifferentpsychologicalcharacteristicsofpeopleatdifferentstagesofdevelopment,butbroadlyspeaking,italsoincludesanimalpsychology.
EducationalPsychology
EducationalPsychology:Aslongaswestudythepsychologicallawsintheprocessofteachingandlearning,wecanimproveeducationandteachinglevel,improveteachertrainingandacademicexaminations,andpromoteteachinginaccordancewiththeiraptitude.Cultivatestudents'healthypersonalityandcreativity.
CampusPsychology
Schoolpsychology:usuallyworkinginprimaryandsecondaryschools,vibratingandcounselingstudentswhohavelearningdifficulties,adjustmentdifficultiesorsomeproblembehaviorsinschool,andAssistparentsandteacherstosolveschool-relatedproblems.
Observationmethod:Amethodofsystematicallyobservingandrecordinghumanbehaviorinanaturalsituation,andthenanalyzingtherecordstodiscoverthelawsofmentalactivityanddevelopment.
Experimentalmethod:Amethodofobservingacertainbehaviororpsychologicalphenomenonundercontrolledconditions.Dividedintonaturalexperimentmethod(fieldexperiment)andlaboratoryexperimentmethod.
Investigationes methodi
* Experimentaldesign: laboratoryexperiment
* Psychophysicalmethod: naturalexperiment
*Observationmethod: auto-observationMethod
*Introspectionmethod*Oralrecording*Quaestionnairemethod*Semanticdifferencemethod*Interviewmethod
*Filemethod(biographiamethod): Commoda filemethodare: (1)Yesthepsychologicalinterference of the search objectissmall;(2) convenienter inquisitioni-culturalcomparativae;(3) idoneae fortalitiae quaerendi tempus.
*Simulationmethod
*Psychologicals: multivariateanalysis, factoranalysis, etc.
* Psychologicalmeasurement
** Reliability ** Validity
** Facultates
***Intelligencetest:IQ,IntelligenceAge,Binet-SimonScale,Stanford-BinetIntelligenceScale,WexlerAdultIntelligenceScale,WexlerIntelligenceScaleforSchool-ageChildren,WexlerIntelligenceScaleforPreschoolChildren,GesellInfantDevelopmentScale,BaileyInfantDevelopmentScale,NewbornBehaviorRatingScale,DenverDevelopmentScreeningTest,MobaScale,PaintingTest,LTECHInternationalOperationalScale,BanderVisualGestaltTest,PeeboDi'sPictureVocabularyTest,PingPeiManipulationScale,ArmyGroupIntelligenceTest,SpecialAbilityTest ,WestshoreMusicalAbilityTest,MeyerArtJudgmentTest,etc.
**PersonalityTests:Children’sPersonalityQuestionnaire,CaliforniaPersonalityQuestionnaire,MinnesotaPolyphasicPersonalityQuestionnaire,EysenckPersonalityQuestionnaire,EdwardsPersonalHobbiesScale,ExplicitAnxietyScale,SubjectStatisticsAwarenesstest,Rorschachtest,charactereducationresearchtest,etc.
Holstead-RetanNeuropsychologicalTestSuite
*SocialMeasurement*CaseStudy*DevelopmentalResearch*Crux-culturalResearch
*PsychologicalInstruments:Speedindicator,physicalmirror,colorwheel,flashfusiondevice,rodframeadjuster,depthperceptiondevice,audiometer,paintester,memorydrum,polygraph,Skinnerbox,maze,RushleyplatformWait.
TheoreticalPsychology*Psychology:thecategoryofmentalactivity
*Conscientia: origo conscientiae, rivus conscientiae, inscius conscientia, mens corporis relatio, mens corporis aequivalentia, mens-um idem formantia, animus corporis parallelismus, mens corporis interactio, ratio mentis, etc.
*Scholae theoricae: empiricismus, reflexio theoria, reductio, anthropomorphismus, reflexio, reactio, stereotypa theoria, psychologia, mentalismus, biologicatio, socialization, niger box theoria, theoria formandi et spiritus, theoria valetudinis persona, theoria cognitionis et habitus et natura, theoria cognitionis et habitus, et natura, theoria formandi et spiritus, theoria valetudinis personae, theoria cognitionis et habitus, et natura, theoria cognitionis, habitus et natura, theoria formandi et spiritus
*BehavioralScience
Categoria
GeneralPsychology
*Sensatio
**Sensatio**Sensorythreshold
**Psychophysicallaws: Weber'slaw
**Signalperceptiontheory**Neurospecialenergytheory
** Visio: photographica visio, visio, visio, Machband, lateralis suppressio, characteristica perceptron, frequentia
** Auditorium: auditorium, auditorium, etc.
Odor saporis
** Pellem: tactum, duo puncta, etc.
Dolorem vibrationis Kinesthesia Libra Bodysensation
*Nota:Pensitatio voluntatis, notatio, attentio in latitudinem, attentio todistributionis, attentio stabilitas, distractio, etc.
*Perceptio:Perceptualselectivity,perceptualconstantiae,figurateperceptio,figuramasking,figurare-effectus (ectus effectus, McCulloughafter effectus, kinestheticafter effectus), spatium perceptio (profundum perceptio-Randompointstereogram,sizeperception),ecologicaloptics, motus perceptio (mo- mentum), perceptio, intellectus, perceptio; perceptio, illusio, perceptio, intuitus, etc.
*Repraesentatio:apparetio, illusio, etc.
*Memoriam: sensoriam, brevem memoriam, memoriam longam, memoriam longam, memoriam, episodium, memoriam, memoriam, memoriam, memoriam, memoriam, memoriam, memoriam, retentio, recognitio, reproductio, recordatio, recordatio, memoria, memoria, memoria, memoria, memoria, memoria, retentio, recognitio, reproductio, recordatio, recordatio, memoria, memoria, memoria, memoria, memoria, memoria, retentio, recognitio, reproductio, recordatio, memoria, memoria, memoria, memoria, memoria, memoria, memoria, retentio, recognitio, reproductio, recordatio, recordatio, memoria, memoria, memoria, memoria, memoria, recordatio effectus primarius, recentia effectus, effectus Zegonik, mnemonica, etc.
*Lenovo: freeassociatio, moderatio, coniunctio, coniunctio, contrarietas, similisassociatio, etc.
*Doctrina
* Imaginatio: thinkingabout
*Cogitare: analysis, synthesis, abstractio, generalisatio, concreta cogitatio, abstracta cogitandi, creandi cogitandi, no image cogitationis etc.
*Problemsolvenda: problemata, heuristica, trialanderror, epiphania, etc.
*Decision-faciens
*Conceptiones: conceptus, notiones artificiales, etc.
*Intellectus
*Information processingpsychology: hypothesis ofphysicalsymbolsystem,ACTA.
* Artificialintelligence:
**Imagerecognition:templatematchingmodel,prototypematchingmodel"pan-magicum" agnitio exemplar, etc.
**GPSprogram**EPAMprogram
*Moodandemotio: motus theoria, motus polaris, sentiendi, elocutio, modus, ardor, passio, taedium, timor, ira, accentus.
* Voluntas * Intentio * Interest
*Motivation: MotivationTheory
*Necesse:HierarchyofNeeds
*Motus: Stimulus, Motus, Stimulus, Internus, Fixus, Instinctus, Motus (motorcoordinatio), motus (reactio, motus), habitus, actus, congue, manipulationes, artes, actiones, etc.
*Lingua
*Lingua:internallanguage,externallanguage,verbalcommunication,etc.
* Lectio Specimen * Personality
*Personalitas:qualitas, facultas (intellectus, intelligentia, intelligentia, structura theoria), cognitio cognitiva, metacognitio, internazatio et externus, Genius expectat.
* Temperamentum: sanguineum, mucosum, depressum, et bile.
* Personality: Extraverted, Introverted, Inferiority Complex, CogitansType, Artistica, Excitatio Typus, etc.
*Psychologia: supersensoryperceptio (remotivatio), psychologicactuatio, etc.
PhysiologicalPsychology
Functionalsystemtheory,equipotentialtheoryofcerebralcortexfunction,theoryofcerebralcortexfunctionpositioning,functionalasymmetryofthetwocerebralhemispheres,cerebralcortexjointarea,thalamus-cortexSpecificprojectionsystem,thalamic-corticalnon-specificprojectionsystem,basalganglia,cerebellum,reticularactivationsystem,limbicsystem,neurotransmitter,reverberationcircuit,spontaneouspotential,evokedpotential,receptivefield,splitbrain,self-stimulation,circadianrhythm,Circadianrhythm,handicap,Pavloviantheory(conditionalreflextheory,analyzertheory,advancedneuralactivitylaw,twosignalsystemtheory,advancedneuralactivitytypetheory,dynamicstereotype),feedingregulation,drinkingwaterregulation,sexualbehaviorThephysiologicalbasis,thebrainmechanismoflearningandmemory,thephysiologicalmechanismofemotion,thephysiologicalmechanismofexercise,sleep,awakening,heredityandbehavior,hormonesandbehavior,etc.
Animalpsychologia (exemplaria fixa, impressio), ontogenesis agendi, socialis biologiae, animal communicatio, animalis intelligentia, etc.
DevelopmentalPsychology
*Researchandtheoryofpsychologicaldevelopment:genetics,environmentandpsychologicaldevelopment,maturity,learningandpsychologicaldevelopment,motivationofpsychologicaldevelopment,educationanddevelopment,cognitivedevelopmentStagetheory,epistemologyofoccurrence,developmenttheoryofrepresentationalmode,stagetheoryofpersonalitydevelopment,stagetheoryofmoraldevelopment,repetitiontheory,children'sstudy,game,imitation,imprinting,criticalperiod,egocentricity,earlyexperience,parent-childrelationship,etc.
*Individualis progressiones: fetales, neonatales, infantia, infantia, pueritia, adolescentia, adolescentia, adulta, senectus, etc.
*ChildPsychology:
**Motion development: lactantem reflexum, pabulatione reflexum, tenerum reflexum, Babinskireflexum, etc.
**Cognitivaevolutionis: attentio progressionis, perceptualdevelopmenti, memorievelopmenti, intellectus progressionis, elangui- tionis, cogitationi progressionis, etc.
** Personalitydevelopment ** Onlychild Supernormalchild ** Inferiorchild ** Problemchild ** Handicappedchild ** Wolfchild
*JuvenilePsychology*YouthPsychology*AdultPsychology*GeriatricPsychology*LifelongDevelopmentalPsychology
SocialPsychology
*ExperimentalSocialPsychology*AppliedSocialPsychology*EducationalSocialPsychology
*BusinessPsychology: ConsumerPsychology, AdvertisingPsychology, etc.
*LegalPsychology
**CriminalPsychology: JuvenileCriminalPsychology
**TrialPsychology** TestimonyPsychology
*ConsultationPsychology*Cross-culturalPsychology*EthnicPsychology*ReligiousPsychology*SocialPsychologyoftheFormerSovietUnion
*TheoreticalTheory
**RoleTheory: GenderRoles, GenderDifferences, etc.
** AttributionTheory: AttributionBias
**FieldTheory
**CognitiveConformanceTheory**CognitiveDissonanceTheory**ConsistentyTheory
** InteractionTheory: SignInteractionTheory
**SocialLearningTheory
** SocialExchangeTheory: FairnessTheory
**BalanceTheory**InterpersonalRelationshipActivityIntermediaryTheory
* conceptus et processus, socialadaptatio, societas (internalization), socialis perceptio, interpersonalis perceptio, interpersonalis relatio (interpersonalattraction-interpersonalattractio- nes, studium, solitudo), socialis promotio et societas, propriae perceptio), habitus (habitus theoria, mensus formatio, mutatio; communicatio, communicatio (interpersonalis communicatio, communicatio, communicatio, communicatio, mutuatio, cooperatio, oboeditio, impugnatio, perseverantia, inventio et indifferentia, alternatio experientiae, imitatio, infectio, modus, consilium, praeiudicium, rumores, etc.
*GroupPsychologia:GroupTheoria,Societas,Societas,Societas,GroupDynamics,SocialPsychologicalAtmosphere,SmallGroupConscientia,Massaehavior,Intergroup Relationitatum,Reference Group, Collectiva, Collectiva Membrorum,SocialPsychologicalAtmosphere,SmallGroupConscientia,Massaehavior,Intergroup Relationship,Reference Group, Collectiva, Collectiva Membrorum,SocialPsychologicalAtmosphere,SmallGroupConscientia,Massaehavior,Intergroup Relationitatum,Reference Group,Collectiva,Collectiva Membrorum Sef-negatio,Conscientia,Conscientia,Conscientia,Massaehavior,Intergroup Relationship
EducationalPsychology
*DoctrinaPsychology
**DoctrinaTheory:AssociativeReflectionTheory,ConnectionTheory,CognitiveTheory,Connection-CognitiveTheory,LearningThetheoryofactivitiesandsoon.
**DoctrinaInformationProcessingModel
**DoctrinaModel**DoctrinaClassificationTheory**DoctrinaPreparation**DoctrinaMotivation**DoctrinaStereotypes**DoctrinaReinforcement**Doctrinameasurementandevaluation
**Doctrinatransfer:experiencegeneralizationtheory,analysissummarytheory,thesameelementtheory,etc.
**Doctrinamethods:discoverlearning,acceptlearning,guidelearning,masterlearning,meaningfullearningandmechanicallearning,overalllearningandpartiallearning,concentratedlearningandscatteredlearning,learningcompetition,latentlearning,Over-learning,etc.
**Doctrinadifferences**Rosenthaleffect**Pygmalioneffect**Mentalhealthoflearning
*Subjectteachingpsychology:Chineseteachingpsychology,mathematicsteachingPsychology,foreignlanguageteachingpsychology,naturalscienceteachingpsychology,socialscienceteachingpsychology,etc.
*Educationaltechnologia: audiendi visualis, programmatis, machinandi, computandi assistendi, sui studendi, etc.
*Intellectualeductiopsychologia: scientia magisterium, intellectualium artes, operationes artes, facultates differentiae, etc.
*Moraleducatiopsychologia: indoles, character structura, character formatio, indoles progressionis theoriae, character differentiae, etc.
*SportsPsychology*AestheticEducationPsychology*TeacherPsychology
MedicalPsychology
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
*Perceptiones ordinationes: phantasmata, hallucinationes, etc.
*AttentionDisorders
*Memoria Disorders:Amnesia,haramosis and fictio, déjàvuandold res, ut novae.
*Intellectualisability: mentalisretardation, dementia etc.
* Affectivedisorder: anxietatem
*Willdisorder
*Disputatio: delictum, delusio, etc.
* Obsessive-compulsivestate
*Disputatio, mutismus, aphasia, etc.
* Personalitydisorder: mentis
* Abnormalsexualbehavior: homosexualitas
*Psychologicaldefensemechanism* Tensionstate
*Psychotherapy:Suggestivetherapy,psychoanalysistherapy,Gestalttherapy,morum therapy, systema desensitization, aversiones therapy, pignus, biofeedback, hypnotherapy,Qigongtherapy,etc.
*Rehabilitationpsychology
*Mentalhealth: psychologicum consultum, pueritiae virtus, iuventus animi, adulta animi virtus, maior mentis salus, coetus mentis, etc.
*HealthPsychology*AbnormalPsychology*PathologyPsychology*PsychophysiologyMedicine*PsychosomaticMedicine*NursingPsychology*ClinicalNeuropsychology*PsychologicalResearchonAcupunctureAnalgesia
*Defectpsychology: caeca psychologia, surda mutepsychologia, etc.
IndustrialPsychology
*ManagementPsychology: Investigatio Qualitas Operis Vitae, HumanumNatureTheory in OrganizationalBehavior, GoalSetting, HierarchicalStructure, Persona- stio, Faciendi Ratio, Faciendi Ratio, Faciendi Ratio, Faciendi Ratio, Ratio, Personae Electio, Careerguidance), Organizationalvelopmentum, OrganizationalMatio, GoalSetting, Hierarchica Structura, Faciendi Ratio, Faciendi Ratio, Faciendi Ratio, Faciendi Ratio, Facultas, Ratio
*LaborPsychology* EngineeringPsychology
*Ergonomica: simulatio, horarum opera, inposuit, mentalia, vestigatio, actio aestimatio, motus et timor quaerendi, effectus illuminandi, tumultus effectus, temperantiae effectus, vibrationis effectus, etc.
*Man-machina: monitor, moderatoris, visualis ludenditerminalis, humano-computationum, etc.
*SafetyPsychology: fatigatio
*AviationandSpacePsychology
LiteraryPsychology
*AestheticPsychology* ExperimentalAesthetics
*Aesthetica: artificiosa, synesthesia, etc.
*Musicpsychology: musica, imaginatio, discriminatio, auditorium rhythm, musicen- cipium, etc.
*Literaryandartistictalent
*Literary andartisticcreation: inspiratio, concretio, etc.
*Literaryappreciation
Sportspsychology
*Athletepsychologia: athletae'sperceptio, athleta specialis affectus, athletae spsychologicaleslectio, athletae spsychologici institutio, etc.
*Refereepsychology*Competitionpsychology*Audiencepsychology
Otherspecializedpsychology:generalpsychology,experimentalpsychology,psychophysics,cognitivepsychologyStudies,Psycholinguistics,LanguagePsychology,ChineseCharacterPsychology,DevelopmentalPsychology,MathematicalPsychology,PhysiologicalPsychology,Neuropsychology,ComparativePsychology,AnimalPsychology,SocialPsychology,EducationalPsychology,IndustrialPsychology,Environmentalpsychology,medicalpsychology,artpsychology,sportspsychology,psychology.
Conditor
James(WilliamJames)isanAmericanphilosopheranddoctor,andoneofthefoundersofcontemporarypsychology.Hedefinedpsychologyin1890as"thescienceofspirituallife."Hisdefinitionmadeagoodstartforourunderstandingofpsychology,anditcanbesaideventoday.Weallhavespirituallives.Therefore,weknowalittlebitaboutwhatpsychologymeans.Althoughwecanstudypsychologybystudyingratsandmonkeys,orbystudyingpeople,theconceptofpsychologyisstilldifficulttounderstand.
James,likemostpsychologists,isparticularlyinterestedinhumanpsychology.Hebelievesthathumanpsychologyiscomposedofsomebasiccomponents:thoughtsandfeelings,thematerialworldthatexistsintimeandspace,andmethodstounderstandthesethings.Foreachofus,thisknowledgeispersonalandprivateaboveall.Thiskindofknowledgecomesfromourownthoughts,feelings,andexperiencesintheworld,andmayormaynotbeaffectedbyscientificfacts.Forthisreason,weregardourexperienceasatouchstone,anditiseasytomakejudgmentsaboutpsychologicalmatters.We,likeamateurpsychologists,expressourviewsoncomplexpsychologicalphenomena,suchaswhetherbrainwashingworks,orwhenwetreatourselvestootherpeopleastowhytheybehavelikethat(thinkingthattheyarebeinginsulted,feelingunhappy,orAbruptlyabandontheirwork)viewasafact.However,whentwopeopleunderstandthatthingsaredifferent,theproblemarises.Formalpsychologywantstoprovidemethodstodeterminewhichexplanationsaremostlikelytobecorrect,ortodeterminethespecificconditionsunderwhichvariousmethodsareapplicable.Theworkofapsychologisthelpsustodistinguishtwothings:oneisinternalinformation,whichissubjective,maybebiasedandunreliable,andtheotherisfacts.Itistodistinguishourpreconceptionsfromthe"real"thingsinthescientificsense.
AccordingtoJames’definition,psychologyisaboutthemindandthebrain.However,althoughpsychologistsdostudythebrain,weknowtoolittleabouttheworkofthebraintounderstandhowweareexperiencingandexpressingTheroleitplaysinourhopes,fearsanddesires,ortounderstandtheroleitplaysinourcomplexbehaviorsfromhavingchildrentowatchingfootball.Infact,itisalmostimpossibletostudythebraindirectly.Therefore,psychologistshavediscoveredmorethingsbystudyingourbehavior,andusingtheirfindings,derivesvarioushypothesesaboutourinternalsituation.
Psychologyisalsorelatedtomethods.Biology(oftenreferredtoashumans)usesthesemethodstousetheirmentalabilitiesormindstooperateintheworld.Astimegoesbyandtheenvironmentchanges,themethodstheyusehavealsochanged.Thetheoryofevolutionbelievesthatiforganismscannotadapttothechangingenvironment,theywillbeonthevergeofextinction(therefore,therearethesayingsof"notadaptingtoextinction"and"survivalofthefittest").Themindhasalwaysbeenshapedbyadaptiveprocedures,andthisshapingcontinues.Thatistosay,thereasonwhyourmindworksinthiswayisduetoevolutionaryreasons-forexample,whywearebetteratdiscoveringmovingthingsthanstaticthings,probablybecausethisabilityisusefulandcanhelpus.Theancestorsavoidedcarnivores.Understandingthesereasonsisimportantforpsychologists,anditisequallyimportantforpeoplewhoworkinotherdisciplines,suchasbiologyandphysiology.
Theinherentdifficultyinpsychologyresearchisthatscientificfactsshouldbeobjectiveandtestable,buttheoperationofthemindcannotbeseenbylookingattheoperationoftheengine.Indailylife,theoperationofthemindcanonlybeperceivedindirectly,andithastobeinferredfromwhatcanbeobserved(thatis,behavior).Theenergyspentonpsychologyisverysimilartothatofplayingcrosswords.Itinvolvesevaluatingandunderstandingexistingclues,andfillingintheblankswithwhatisalreadyknown.Inaddition,thecluesthemselvesmustbeobtainedfromcarefulobservation,mustbebasedonprecisemeasurements,mustbeanalyzedwithasscientificrigoraspossible,andmustbeexplainedwithlogicalandrationalarguments.TheseargumentsmustbeabletowithstandCanaffordpublicexamination.Mostofthethingswewanttoknowinpsychology--howweperceive,learn,remember,think,solveproblems,feel,develop,differfromeachother,andconnectwitheachother--havetobeindirectTheyaremeasuredlocally,andalloftheseactivitiesaremultiplydetermined:meaningthattheyareaffectedbymultiplefactorsratherthanone.Forexample,imaginethatyouarefacedwithaspecificsituation(lostinastrangetown)andyouwanttoreact,howmanythingsmightaffectyou.Inordertofindtheimportantfactors,otherconfusingfactorshavetobeeliminated.
Inpsychology,complexinteractionsarenotsomuchexceptionsasnormal.Understandingtheseinteractionsdependsonthedevelopmentofcomplextechnologiesandtheories.Thegoalsofpsychologyandotherdisciplinesarethesame:describe,understand,predict,andlearnhowtocontroloradjusttheproceduresstudiedinpsychology.Oncethesegoalsarereached,psychologywillhelpusunderstandthenatureofourexperience,andpsychologywillhavepracticalvalue.Psychologicalfindingsareusefulinsomeareas,suchasdevelopingeffectivemethodsforteachingchildrentoread,designingcontrolpanelsformachinestoreducetheriskofaccidents,andreducingthesufferingofpeoplewithmoodswings.
Althoughtheissuesofpsychologyhavebeendiscussedforhundredsofyears,scientificinvestigationsoftheseissueshaveonlyoccurredinthepast150years.Earlypsychologistsreliedonintrospection,whichistheintrospectionoftheirownconsciousexperience,tofindanswerstopsychologicalquestions.Thepurposeofthesepsychologicalinvestigationsistofindoutthestructureofthemind.However,afterCharlesDarwinpublishedTheOriginofSpeciesin1859,thescopeofpsychologyexpandedtoincludeboththestructureofconsciousnessandthefunctionofconsciousness.Thestructureandfunctionofpsychologyarestillthecenterofinterestofpsychologists,butthereareobviouslimitationsinstudyingthemwithintrospection.AsSirFrancisGaltonpointedout,itmakesaperson"ahelplessobserver,observingonlytheverysubtlepartsofthebrain'sautomaticwork."Asaresult,contemporarypsychologistsprefertobasetheirtheoriesoncarefulobservationofphenomena(suchasthebehaviorofotherpeopletheyareinterestedin)ratherthanonreflectionsonpersonalexperiences.
In1913,JohnWatsonpublishedageneralBehaviouristmanifestoforpsychology,statingthatifpsychologyistobecomeascience,thenitmustbebasedondataForinspection.Thisfocusonobservablebehaviorsratherthaninternal(unobservable)psychologicaleventsisconnectedwiththetheoryoflearning,andwiththeemphasisonreliablemethodsofobservationandexperimentation.Thisreliablemethodofobservationandexperimentationstillaffectspsychology.Behaviorismclaimsthatallbehaviorsaretheresultofconditioning.Conditioningcanbestudiedbyspecifyingstimulusandobservingtheresponsetothestimulus(S-R[psychology]instimulus-responsepsychology).Whathappenedbetweenthetwo,interveningvariables,wasconsideredunimportantbyearlybehaviorism,butlaterbecamethemainsourceofexperimentalhypotheses.Testinghypothesesaboutthesethingshasallowedpsychologiststocreateincreasinglycomplextheoriesaboutmentalstructure,mentalfunctions,andmentalprocesses.
TwoothermeaningfulinfluencesonthedevelopmentofpsychologyatthebeginningofthiscenturycomefromGestaltpsychologyandpsychoanalysis.TheGettapsychologistworkinginGermanyhassomeinterestingdiscoveriesaboutthewaythepsychologyprogramiscomposed.Thesefindingsindicatethatifourexperienceisonlybasedonthephysicalcharacteristicsofexternalstimuli,thenourexperienceisdifferentfromwhatweexpected,andtheconclusionisthat"thewholeisgreaterthanthesumofitsparts."Forexample,whentwoverysimilarlightsflashinsequence,whatweseeisalightmovingbetweentwopositions(thisistheprincipleofthemovie).Recognizingthatpsychologicalproceduresinfluencethenatureofexperienceinthiswayhaslaidthefoundationforthedevelopmentofcontemporarycognitivepsychology(Cognitivepspchology).Cognitivepsychologyisabranchofpsychologythatstudiessuchinternalprocedures.
SigmundFreud'stheoryattractedattentiontounconsciousprocesses.Histheoryisaboutthecontinuousinfluenceofearlychildhoodexperiencesandthetheoreticalpsychologicalstructure,whichhecallsego,id,andsuperego.Unconsciousproceduresincludeunconsciousandunacceptabledesiresanddesires.Theseproceduresareinferredfromdreams,slipsofthetongue,andoddities,andareconsideredtohaveanimpactonbehavior.Inparticular,unconsciousconflictisassumedtobethemaincauseofpsychologicaldepression.Psychoanalystscanhelpalleviatethisdepressionbyassistingpeopleinexpressingtheseconflicts,andexplainthebehaviorofpatientswiththepsychodynamictheorybasedonFreud'swork.Freud'stheoryisbasedonunobservablementalprocesses,andthisnaturemakesitdifficulttoscientificallytestthetheory.Overtheyears,themorescientificordescriptivebranchesofpsychologyhavedevelopedindependentlyalongtheirowndifferentpaths.
Contemporarypsychologyisatanexcitingstagetoday,partlybecauseinsomeplacesthedividinglinebetweenbranchesofpsychologyiscollapsing.Howtounderstandwhatwecannotdirectlyobserveisnotjustaprobleminpsychology,butalsoinotherdisciplines-thinkaboutphysicsandbiochemistry.Advancesintechnologyandtheoryhavehelpedthisprocess,andthisdevelopmenthaschangedthenatureofpsychologyasascienceandwillcontinuetocausechanges.Psychologistscanusecomplexmeasuringinstruments,electronicequipmentandimprovedstatisticalmethods,aswellasallequipmentincomputersandinformationtechnologytoanalyzeavarietyofvariablesandlargeamountsofdata.Studyingthemindasaninformationprocessingsystemhasenabledpsychologiststofindmorethingsthatcannotbedirectlyobserved,aswellasvariousvariablesbetweenstimuliandresponses,suchasattention,thoughts,anddecision-makingvariables..Psychologistscanbasetheirassumptionsonthesethingsnotonlyonintrospectivehypotheses,asearlyanalystsdid,oronobservationsofbehavior,asearlybehavioristsdid,butonThecombinationofthesethingsisbasedonamorereliableandeffectivemethodofobservationandmeasurement.Thesedevelopmentshaveproducedarevolutioninpsychologyasthe"scienceofspirituallife",andtheircontinueddevelopmentmeansthatthereisstillmuchtobediscovered.