Johdanto
Fromthefollowingtwopoints,itisexplainedthatworkandheatareequivalent,notequal.
Oneisthatthesamechangeintheinternalenergyofthesystemcanbedoneeitherbydoingworkorbytransferringheat.Thetwoareequivalentonlyintermsoftheeffectonthesystem,andtheymustneverbethesame.
Thesecondisthattheconversionbetweenworkandheatcanonlybecompletedthroughchangesintheinternalenergyofthesystem.Itisnotappropriatetotalkaboutthedirectconversionbetweenworkandheatwithoutthesystem.Althoughmacroscopicallyitmayreflectthattheinternalenergyofthesystemhasnotchanged,itisimpossibletodrawasimpleconclusionthatheatcanchangeworkorworkcanchangeheat.Ifintheconversionprocess,theoutsidesupplysystemheat,sothatthesystemisusedforexternalwork,infact,theexternalsupplysystemheat,sothattheinternalenergyofthesystemincreases,atthesametimethesystemdoesworkexternally,consumingtheenergyobtainedfromtheoutsideworld.
Theworkheatequivalentistheinverseoftheheatworkequivalent,whichisequalto0.24cal/joule.
Merkitys
Beforeunderstandingthenatureofheat,therelationshipbetweenheat,work,andenergywasnotclear,sotheywereexpressedindifferentunits.Theunitofheatiscalorie,referredtoascalorie.Attheendofthe18thcentury,peoplerealizedthatheatisrelatedtosports.ThisopenedthewayforJouletostudytherelationshipbetweenheatandwork.Joulebelievesthatheatandworkshouldhaveacertainequivalentrelationship,thatis,thereisacertainquantitativerelationshipbetweentheunitcalorieofheatandtheunitjouleofwork.From1840to1878,heconductedalargenumberofexperimentsusingelectrothermalmethodandmechanicalcalorimetrymethodfornearly40years,andfinallyfoundouttheequivalentrelationshipbetweenheatandwork.IfWisusedtorepresentelectricalworkormechanicalwork,andQisusedtorepresenttheheatcorrespondingtoallofthese,thentherelationshipbetweenworkandheatcanbewrittenasW=JQ,andJistheequivalentofthermalwork.
In1843,theJvaluemeasuredbytheelectricheatingmethodofJoulewasapproximately4.568J/cal;theJvaluemeasuredbythemechanicalmethodwasapproximately4.165J/cal.Later,Jouleannouncedtheresultsofhisfurtherdeterminationsin1845,1847,and1850respectively,andthefinalresultpublishedin1878wasJ=4.157joules/cal.Withthefurtherdevelopmentofscientificinstrumentsinthefuture,otherscientistshavedonealotofverification.Therecognizedthermalequivalentvalueis:inphysicsJ=4.1868joules/cal(the"card"iscalledtheinternationalsteammetercard);inchemistryJ =4,1840 joulea/cal ("cal" on"Se on nimeltään lämpökemiallinen kortti).
Theinternationalunithasuniformlystipulatedthattheunitsofwork,heat,andenergyareallinjoules,andtheheatequivalentdoesnotexist.However,thethermalpowerequivalentexperimentanditsspecificdatahavealwaysplayedaroleinthehistoryofthedevelopmentofphysics.Joule'sexperimentlaidthefoundationforthelawofenergyconversionandconservation.
Ihmisten löytäminen
Taustatieto
Inthe18thcentury,people’sresearchonthenatureofheattookadetour,andthe"thermalmasstheory"wasinthehistoryofphysics.Ruledformorethanahundredyears.Althoughsomescientistshaddoubtsaboutthiswrongtheory,peoplehavebeenunabletosolvetheproblemoftherelationshipbetweenheatandwork.ItwastheBritishself-taughtphysicistJamesPrescottJoulewhofinallysolvedthisproblem.Theproblempointstheway.
Henkilökohtainen ansioluettelo
Joule(JamesP.Joule,1818-1889),Britishphysicist.Hewasthefirsttoestablishthelawofenergyconservationandtransformationthroughscientificexperiments.JoulewasbornonDecember24,1818inSoft,Manchester,England.Hisfatherwasabreweryowner.Joulefollowedhisfathertoparticipateinwine-makinglaborsincehewasachildandhadnoformaleducation.
Inhisyouth,undertheintroductionofothers,JoulemetthefamouschemistDalton.DaltongaveJouleanenthusiasticinstruction.Joulelearnedmathematics,philosophy,andchemistryfromhimhumbly.ThisknowledgelaidthetheoreticalfoundationforJoule'slaterresearch.Moreover,DaltontaughtthescientificresearchmethodofcombiningJoule'stheoryandpractice,whichinspiredJoule'sinterestinchemistryandphysics.
Johdantoexperience
Joule’sinitialresearchdirectionwaselectromagneticmachines.Hewantedtoreplacethesteamengineusedinhisfather’sbrewerywithelectromagneticmachinestoimproveworkefficiency.In1837,Jouleinstalledabattery-drivenelectromagneticmachine,butbecausethecurrentsupportingtheelectromagneticmachine'soperationcomesfromzincbatteries,andzincisexpensive,itisnotascost-effectivetouseanelectromagneticmachineasasteamengine.AlthoughJoule'soriginalgoalwasnotachieved,hediscoveredfromexperimentsthatelectriccurrentcandowork,whichinspiredhisinterestinin-depthresearch.
Testiprosessi
In1840,Jouleputthetoroidalcoilintoatesttubefilledwithwatertomeasurethewatertemperatureatdifferentcurrentintensitiesandresistances.Throughthisexperiment,hefoundthattheheatemittedbyaconductorinacertainperiodoftimeisproportionaltotheproductoftheconductor'sresistanceandthesquareofthecurrentintensity.Fouryearslater,theRussianphysicistLenzpublishedalargenumberofexperimentalresults,thusfurtherverifyingthecorrectnessofJoule'sconclusionontheheatingeffectofelectriccurrent.Therefore,thislawiscalledJoule-Lenz'slaw.
AfterJoulesummeduptheJoule-Lenzlaw,itisfurtherassumedthattheheatgeneratedbythebatterycurrentandtheheatgeneratedbytheinducedcurrentoftheelectromagneticmachineshouldbeessentiallythesame.In1843,Jouledevisedanewexperiment.Asmallcoiliswoundontheironcore,theinducedcurrentismeasuredwithanammeter,thecoilisplacedinacontainerwithwater,andthewatertemperatureismeasuredtocalculatetheheat.Thiscircuitiscompletelyenclosed,thereisnoexternalpowersupply,theincreaseinwatertemperatureisonlytheresultoftheconversionofmechanicalenergyintoelectricalenergyandelectricalenergyintoheat.Thereisnotransferofheatandmassinthewholeprocess.Theresultofthisexperimentcompletelynegatedthetheoryofthermalmass.
TheaboveexperimentalsomadeJoulethinkoftheconnectionbetweenmechanicalworkandheat.Afterrepeatedexperimentsandmeasurements,Joulefinallymeasuredthethermalworkequivalent,buttheresultwasnotaccurate.AttheBritishAcademicConferenceonAugust21,1843,Joulereportedhispaper"OntheThermalEffectofElectromagnetismandtheMechanicalValueofHeat".Inhisreport,hesaidthat1kcalofheatisequivalentto460kilogramsofwork.Hisreportdidnotreceivesupportandstrongresponse,andatthistimeherealizedthatheneededtoconductmorepreciseexperiments.
In1844,Joulestudiedthetemperaturechangesofairduringexpansionandcompression,andhehasmademanyachievementsinthisregard.Throughthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenthevelocityofgasmoleculesandtemperature,Joulecalculatedthevalueofthethermalvelocityofgasmolecules,theoreticallylayingthefoundationforBoyle-MarriottandGuy-Lussac'slawsandexplainingTheessenceofthepressureofthegasonthewall.ManyofJoule'sexperimentsintheresearchprocessweredonejointlywiththefamousphysicistWilliamThomson(laternamedLordKelvin).Ofthe97scientificpaperspublishedbyJoule,20aretheresultoftheircollaboration.Whenthefree-diffusiongasentersthelow-pressurecontainerfromthehigh-pressurecontainer,thetemperatureofmostofthegasandtheairwilldrop.Thisphenomenonwasdiscoveredbythetwo.ThisphenomenonwaslatercalledtheJoule-Thomsoneffect.
Whetherintermsofexperimentsorintheory,Jouleisoneofthepioneersofin-depthresearchfromthestandpointofmoleculardynamics.
Whileengaginginthesestudies,Joulehasnotinterruptedthemeasurementofthermalpowerequivalent.In1847,Jouledidwhatisconsideredtobethemostingeniousexperimentofdesignthinkingsofar:Hefilledthecalorimeterwithwater,installedarotatingshaftwithbladesinthemiddle,andthenletthefallingweightdrivethebladestorotate,duetothefrictionbetweenthebladesandthewater.,Thewaterandthecalorimeterhavebecomehot.Accordingtotheheightatwhichtheweightfalls,theconvertedmechanicalworkcanbecalculated;accordingtotheincreasedtemperatureofthewaterinthecalorimeter,theincreaseintheinternalenergyofthewatercanbecalculated.Bycomparingthetwonumbers,theexactvalueofthethermalequivalentcanbeobtained.
Joulealsousedwhaleoilinsteadofwaterasanexperiment,andmeasuredtheaveragethermalpowerequivalentof423.9kg·m/kcal.Hethenreplacedwaterwithmercuryandcontinuedtoimprovetheexperimentalmethodsuntil1878,whenhestartedthisworknearly40yearsago.Hehascarriedoutmorethan400experimentswithvariousmethodsbeforeandafter.Heusedfrictiontoheatwaterin1849andtheresultwasthesameasin1878,whichwas423.9kg·m/kcal.Themeasurementofanimportantphysicalconstantcanbemaintainedfor30yearswithoutmajorcorrections,whichisalsoextremelyrareinthehistoryofphysics.Thisvaluewasrecognizedasthethermalpowerequivalentatthetime.
Mittausmenetelmä
Tarkoitus ja vaatimukset
Usetheelectrothermalmethodtomeasurethethermalpowerequivalenttodeepenstudents’understandingofthethermalpowerequivalentUnderstandingofphysicalmeaning.
Instrumentit
Kalorimetri (J2251 tyyppi), lämpömittari (0-100°C), opiskelijan virtalähde (J1202 tyyppi tai J1202-1 tyyppi), DC-kamera (J0407 tyyppi tai J0407-1), DC volttimittari (J0408 tai J0408-1), liukuva reostaatti (J235wa-4, J235watch-ase1), (noin 6 ohmia), nestettä (vesi tai kerosiini), yksinapainen kytkin (J2352 tyyppi), useat johdot.
Kokeellinen menetelmä
1.Useabalancetoweighoutthetotalmassoftheinnercylinderofthecalorimeterandtheagitatormcylinder.Thenwater(orkerosene)isinjectedintotheinnertubeofthevectorheatexchanger,andthevolumeofthewateroccupiesabout3/4ofthevolumeoftheinnertube.Useabalancetoweighoutthetotalmassofthecylinderandwaterm,thenmwater=m-mcylinder.Recordinthetable.
2.Puttheinnertubeofthecalorimeterintotheoutertube,puttheresistancewireandthestirrerintothewater,coverthecoverplate,andconnectthecircuit.Readtheinitialtemperaturet1androomtemperaturet0ofthecalorimetersystem,andrecordtheminthetable.
3.Turntheselectionknobofthestudent'spowersupplyvoltageoutputto10voltsor12volts,closetheswitchandstartthestopwatchatthesametime,andquicklyadjusttherheostattomakethecurrentaround1.5-2amperes.Observetheammeterandadjusttherheostatatanytimeinthefuturetokeepthecurrentvaluestable.Duringtheenergizationprocess,thewateriscontinuouslystirredslightlytoaccelerateheattransfer.Readthereadingsoftheammeterandvoltmeterandrecordtheminthetable.
4.Whenthethermometershows10-15℃higherthantheroomtemperature,turnofftheswitchandstoptimingatthesametime.Continuetostirthewaterandobservethethermometerreading.Whenthereadingisthehighest,readthetemperaturet2.Recordthepower-ontimetandthefinaltemperaturet2inthetable.
5.Käytä yhtälöitä(1),(2),(3)ja kokeellisia tietoja löytääksesilämpötyövastineen(tarkista taulukosta,vertaaksesihyväksyttyyn arvoonjaetsitaaksesi virheprosentin.
Mittausperiaate
Setthetotalmassoftheinnertubeofthecalorimeterandthestirrertomtube(madeofthesamematerial),andtheinnermassItisaliquidofMliquid,andtheinitialtemperatureist1.Whentheresistancewireisenergizedfortseconds,thefinalliquidtemperatureist2.AssumingthatthecurrentmeterandthevoltageindicatingnumbersareIandUwhenpowerison,theworkdonebythecurrentduringpoweronis
W=IUt
(1)Calorimeterinnercylinder(includingAgitator)andtheheatabsorptionoftheliquidisQ=(Ctubemtube+CliquidMliquid)(T2－t1)
(2)I,U,t,mtube,MLiquid,t1,t2canbemeasuredbyexperiment,thethermalpowerequivalent
J = W/Q