Konsepti
Thebasicprocessofmemoryiscomposedofthreesteps:remembering,keeping,recallingandrecognizing.Tunnustusisthebeginningofthememoryprocess.Itistheprocessofrecognizingandrememberingthingsandformingacertainimpression.Preservationisanintensifyingprocessofmemorizingcontentsothatitcanbecomeabetterhumanexperience.Recollectionandrecognitionaretwodifferentformsofrepresentationofpastexperience.Thesethreelinksinthememoryprocessareinterrelatedandrestricteachother.Memorizationistheprerequisiteforretention.Withoutretention,therewillbenorecallandrecognition.Palauttaa mieleenandrecognitionareindicatorstotesttheeffectivenessofmemorizationandretention.Fromthispointofview,thesethreelinksofmemoryareindispensable.Thebasicprocessofmemorycanalsobesimplydividedintotheprocessesof"remembering"and"remembering"."Remembering"includesrecognizingandmaintaining,and"remembering"includesrecallingandrecognizing.
Informationprocessingtheorybelievesthattheprocessofmemoryistheprocessofencoding,storingandextractinginputinformation.Onlyencodedinformationcanberemembered.Encodingistheprocessofprocessingandtransformingtheinputinformation.Encodingisthekeystageoftheentirememoryprocess.
Käsitellä asiaa
Tunnustus
Tunnustusreferstotheprocessofdistinguishingandrecognizingthecharacteristicsofthingsandleavingacertainimpressioninthemind.Someofthememorizationofthingscanbeachievedthroughasingleperception,whilemostofthecontentrequiresrepeatedperceptiontoconnectnewinformationwithpeople’sexistingknowledgestructure.Asthefirstlinkinthememoryprocess,memorizationhasaveryimportanteffectonthequalityofmemory.Therefore,understandingandmasteringthelawsofmemorizationcanhelpimprovememory.
Muistamisen luokittelu
1.Accordingtowhetherthememorizationhasapurpose,thememorizationcanbedividedintotwotypes:
Tajuton muistaminen
Tajuton muistaminenmeansnoreservationPurpose,intheprocessofmemorization,thereisnoneedtomakeacertainamountofwillandeffort,andmemorizationoccursnaturally.Forexample,moviesanddramaswehaveseen,storiestoldbyothers,andcertainthingswehaveexperienced.Whenweperceivethem,wehavenointentionofrememberingthem,butthesecontentscanreappearinthemindinthefuture.Itistheunconsciousmind.
Thecontentoftheunconsciousmindisanimportantpartoftheexperience,anditalsohasasignificantimpactonmentalactivityandbehavior.Whatweexperienceunintentionally,whenweconsciouslyfacecertainsituationsanddealwithcertainproblems,canbeusedasexistingexperiencetohelp.Indailylife,theenvironmentpeoplearein,thepeopletheycomeintocontactwith,andtheworktheydowillcausepeopletobesubtlyaffectedandchangetheirpsychologyandbehavior.Forexample,theculturaltraditionofanationwillinvisiblyaffectthepsychologyoftheentirenation,givingitthecharacteristicsofitsownculture.
Unconsciousmindisveryselective.Generallyspeaking,thecontentoftheunconsciousmindhastwocharacteristics:First,thestimulationactingonpeople'ssensoryorgansisofgreatsignificanceorattractingattention.Forexample,peoplewillneverforgetnewthings;thesecondiscontentthatmeetspeople'sneeds,interests,andcanproduceadeeperemotionalexperience.Suchasthesituationwhentakingthecollegeentranceexamination,thesituationonthefirstdayofregistrationattheuniversity,etc.Tajuton muistaminenhasapositiveeffectonpeople'sknowledgeandexperience.Asteachers,studentsshouldtrytheirbesttomakestudentslearnhappilyinthisway.However,unconsciousmemorizationcannotguaranteethatstudentsacquiresystematicculturalandscientificknowledge.Therefore,intheteachingprocess,alargeamountofmemorizationcontentshouldbeobtainedthroughconsciousmemorization.
tietoisesti muistaa
Itreferstoapredeterminedpurpose,andmustbedoneintheprocessofrecognitionThewilltoworkhardtoremember.Theprocessofconsciousmemorizationiscarriedoutunderthecontrolofthepurposeofmemorization.Thepurposeofthememorizationdeterminesthatthememorizationprocessisaproactivecodingprocessofthememorizationcontent.Thiscodingincludes"whattoremember"and"howtoremember"."Whattomemorize"determinesthedirectionandcontentofmemorization,and"howtomemorize"iswhatmethodcanbeadoptedtobettermemorizethecontenttobememorized.Thememorizationofstudentsinthecourseoflisteningtotheclassiscomposedofthesetwoparts.Eachlessonhasacertainteachingpurposeandtask.Teachersusuallygiveanexplanationfirst,sothatstudentswillhavetheintentiontoremembernewknowledgewithapositiveattitude.Inordertobetterrememberwhattheteachersaid,somestudentstakethemethodoflisteningattentively,thatis,usingmind-memory,andsomestudentstakethemethodofcombiningmind-memoryandnotes.
Allpeople'sknowledgeandexperienceareobtainedthroughconsciousandunconsciousmemory.However,intermsoftheeffectofmemorization,consciousmemorizationisbetterthanunconsciousmemorization.Asateacher,understandingthislawofmemorizationwillhelpstrengthentheeducationofstudents'learninggoalsintheteachingprocess.Studentsshouldbeassignedtasksreasonablytoachievegoodteachingandlearningresults.
2.Accordingtotheunderstandingofthematerialduringthememorization,thememorizationcanbedividedintotwotypes:
Mekaaninen muistaminen
Mekaaninen muistaminenItreferstotheidentificationbymechanicalrepetitionaccordingtotheorderofthematerialwhenthematerialitselfhasnointernalconnectionordoesnotunderstanditsmeaning.Suchastherecognitionofmeaninglesssyllables,placenames,namesofpeople,historicalyears,etc.Thiskindofmemorizationispassive,butitcanpreventthedistortionofmemorymaterials.Forstudents,thiskindofmemorizationisalsonecessary,becausesomeofthelearningcontentdoesneedtobememorizedaccurately,suchastheheightofthemountainsandthelengthoftheriver.Therearealsosomecontentthatislimitedtotheknowledgeandexperienceofstudents,anditisimpossibletotrulyunderstanditsmeaning,butthisknowledgeisimportantforfuturelearningandshouldalsobememorizedmechanically.Forexample,studentsinthefirstandsecondgradesofelementaryschoolrecitemultiplicationformulas.Infact,purelymechanicalmemorizationisrare,andpeoplealwaystrytomakethematerialasmeaningfulaspossibleinthememorizationprocess.Accordingtothepointofviewofinformationprocessingtheory,anindividualshouldcodeanyinputinformationasbestaspossibleaccordingtohisownexperiencesystemorpsychologicalpattern.Ifyourememberaphonenumber,youarenotsimplyrepeatingthememory,butusinghomophonicorfindingpatternstomakeitmeaningful.
Merkitysmuisti (muistamisen ymmärtäminen)
MeaningmemorizingisaboutthematerialBasedontheunderstandingofthecontent,thememorizationiscarriedoutthroughtheinternalconnectionofthematerial.Inmeaningmemorization,understandingisthekey.Understandingisakindofprocessingofmaterials.Itreflectstheconnotationofmaterialsandtherelationshipbetweenvariouspartsofmaterialsthroughanalysis,comparison,andsynthesisbasedonpeople'sexistingknowledgeandexperience.Sincemeaningmemorizationrequiresmorementalenergy,itisamorecomplicatedmentalprocessthanmechanicalmemorization.Meaningmemorizationshouldbethemainformofstudentmemorization.
Unohtaminen
Unohtaminenreferstothephenomenonthatthematerialthathasbeenmemorizedcannotberecalledandrecognized,orthememoryandrecognitionarewrong.Accordingtothepointofviewofinformationprocessing,theforgettingprocessexistsatdifferentstagesofmemory.Unohtaminenisbasicallyanormalandreasonablepsychologicalphenomenon.Becausethethingsthathavebeenperceivedarenotnecessaryforallmemory;theimportanceofmemorizingmaterialsistime-effective;itisnecessaryforpeople'smentalhealthandnormallife.
Althoughforgettingisacomplexpsychologicalphenomenon,itsoccurrenceanddevelopmentalsohavecertainlaws.TheGermanpsychologistEbbinghausfirstconductedthisresearch.Heusednonsensesyllablesasexperimentalmaterialsandhimselfastheexperimentalobject.Aftermemorizingthematerials,here-learnedatregularintervals,usingthetimeandnumberoftimessavedwhenre-learningwasusedasanindicator.
Hedrewtheforgettingcurve.Whattheforgettingcurvereflectsistherelationshipbetweentheforgettingvariableandthetimevariable.Thecurveshowsthelawofforgetting:theprocessofforgettingisuneven.Theamountofforgettingisrelativelylargeinthefirstperiodoftimeaftermemorization,andthengraduallydecreases.Thatis,thespeedofforgettingisfastfirstandthenslow.FollowingEbbinghaus,manypeople’sstudiesontheforgettingprocesshavealsoconfirmedthattheEbbinghausforgettingcurveisbasicallycorrect.
Thereasonsforforgettingarenotonlyphysiological,suchasforgettingduetoillness,fatigue,etc.;butalsopsychological.Therearefourmaintheoriesaboutthereasonsforthis:
Thetheoryoftracedecline:Itmainlyemphasizestheinfluenceofthephysiologicalactivityprocessonthememorytraces,anditisbelievedthatforgettingisduetotheinabilitytostrengthenthememorytraces.Andgraduallyweakened,andfinallyfaded.FromtheperspectiveofPavlov’sconditionedreflextheory,memorytracesaretemporaryneuralconnectionsformedonthecortexofthecerebralcortexduringhumanactivitiessuchasperception,thinking,emotion,andmovement.Aftertheconnectionisformed,itwillleaveacertainamountinthenervoustissue.Thekeepingofthetracesisthememory.Undertheactionoftherelevantstimulus,thetraceswillbeactivatedtorestorethetemporaryneuralconnection,andthepastexperiencekeptinthehumanbrainwillbedisplayedintheformofrecallorrecognition.Sometracesthathavenotbeenstrengthenedgraduallydeclineovertimeandcauseforgetting.Thetheoryofmemorytracedeclinehasnotbeenprovedbyaccurateandpowerfulexperiments,butitsexplanationisclosetocommonsense.Justassomephysicalandchemicaltraceswilldisappearovertime,itiseasilyacceptedbypeople.
Interferencetheory:Thistheorybelievesthatforgettingiscausedbythemutualinterferencebetweenthematerialsthathavebeenmemorized.Proactivesuppressionandbackwardsuppressionarepowerfulexamplesofsupportforinterferencetheory.
Thetheoryofdepression:Thistheorybelievesthatforgettingiscausedbythedepressionofemotionormotivation.Ifdepressionisrelieved,memorycanberestored.Thistheoryiseffectivetoexplainthetemporaryforgettingofemotion-relatedcontent.ThistheorywasdiscoveredbyFreudinclinicalpractice.Hebelievedthatthoseexperiencesthatbringpeopleunpleasant,painful,andsadexperiencesoftenleadtomotivationalforgetting.
Thetheoryofassimilation:Thistheorybelievesthatforgettingistheprocessoforganizingknowledgeandsimplifyingthecognitivestructure.ThisisOsubel'suniqueexplanationforforgettingbasedonhistheoryofmeaningfulspeechlearning.Hebelievesthatwhenpeoplelearnmoreadvancedconceptsandlaws,high-levelconceptscanreplacelow-levelconcepts,makinglow-levelconceptsforgotten,therebysimplifyingunderstandingandreducingmemory.Intruemeaningfullearning,successivelearningdoesnotinterferewitheachotherbutpromoteseachother,becausemeaningfullearningisalwaysbasedontheoriginallearning,andthelaterlearningdeepensandsupplementsthepreviouslearning.
Aikaväli
Prosenttiosuussäästöajasta toistuvassa koulussa
20 minuuttia
58.2
1 tunti
44.2
8-9 tuntia
35.2
1 päivä
33.7
2 päivää
27.8
6
25.4
31
21.1
TunnustusandRecollection
Tunnustus
Tunnustusisthementalprocessthatcanberecognizedandconfirmedwhenthingsexperiencedinthepastreappear.Intheprocessofrecognition,differentpeoplerecognizedifferentmaterialsatdifferentspeeds.Thisisrelatedtothefactorsthataffectrecognition.Thesefactorsare:
Thedegreeofconsolidationoftheoriginalexperience.Ifpastexperienceisclearlyandaccuratelymaintained,whenitreappears,itcangenerallybeconfirmedquicklyandaccurately.Ifgeneralizationhasoccurredinpastexperience,recognitionerrorswilleasilyoccur.
Thesimilaritybetweentheoriginalandthereappearance.Thehigherthedegreeofsimilarity,thefastertherecognitionandtheworsetheaccuracyofsimilarity,themoredifficultandslowertherecognition,thegreaterthepossibilityofrecognitionerrors.
Personalitycharacteristics.Personalitycharacteristicsaredifferent,andpeople'smentalactivityspeedandbehavioralresponsespeedarealsodifferent.Psychologistshaveconfirmedthroughexperimentsthatthereisacleardifferencebetweentherecognitionofpeoplewithstrongindependenceandthosewithstrongdependence.Whentherearedifficultiesinrecognition,peopleoftenhavetolookforcluestorecognize,andachieverecognitionofthingsthroughclues.Cluesarethefulcrumofrecognition,suchasrecognizingalong-lostfriendwhoreunites,generallyusecertaincharacteristicsofthebodyascluesforrecognition.
Palauttaa mieleen
Palauttaa mieleenistheprocessofreappearinginthemindofthingsexperiencedinthepastundertheinfluenceofcertaininducements.Forexample,whenansweringateacher’squestion,studentsshouldextracttheknowledgerelatedtothequestionheldintheirminds.Thisextractionprocessisrecalling.
Memoriescanbedividedintotwocategories:memoriescanbedividedintointentionalmemoriesandunintentionalmemoriesaccordingtotheirpurpose.Intentionalrecallistherecollectionofpastexperienceundertheinfluenceofapredeterminedpurpose.Suchasthememoryofthetestcontent.Unintentionalmemoriesarememoriesthathappennaturallywithoutapredeterminedpurpose.Suchastouchingthescenetogivebirthtoloveandsoon.Accordingtowhetherintermediaryfactorsareinvolvedintherecallprocess,memoriescanbedividedintodirectmemoriesandindirectmemories.Directmemoriesarememoriesofoldexperiencesthataredirectlyevokedbycurrentthings.Indirectrecallistherecallwiththehelpofintermediaryfactors.Intermsofdifficulty,indirectrecallismoredifficultthandirectrecall.
Tyyppi
Sisällön mukaan
Accordingtothecontentofthememory,thememorycanbedividedintofourtypes:
1.Kuvamuisti
Thememorythattakestheimageofthingsyouhavefeltasthecontentiscalledimagememory.Thesespecificimagescanbevisual,auditory,olfactory,tactileortastefulimages.Forexample,people’smemoryofapicturetheyhaveseenorapieceofmusictheyhaveheardistheimagememory.Thedistinguishingfeatureofthistypeofmemoryisthepreservationoftheperceptualcharacteristicsofthings,whichistypicallyintuitive.
2.Emotionaalinen muisti
Itisamemorycontainingemotionsoremotionsexperiencedinthepast.Forexample,students’memoriesofthehappymoodwhentheyreceivedtheadmissionletterfromtheuniversity.Intheprocessofrecognizingthingsorinteractingwithpeople,peoplewillalwayshaveacertainemotionalcolororemotionalcontent.Theseemotionsoremotionsarealsostoredinthebrainasthecontentofmemoryandbecomeapartofpeople'spsychologicalcontent.Emotionalmemoriesareoftenformedonceandarenotforgottenforalongtime,andhaveagreaterimpactonpeople'sbehavior.Forexample,theteacher'sfirstimpressionofastudentwillgreatlyaffecttheattitudeandbehaviorofthestudent,becausethisimpressionisconnectedwithemotions.Theimageofemotionalmemoryissometimesmoredurablethanotherformsofmemory.Evenifpeoplehaveforgottenthefactthatcausedacertainemotionalexperience,theemotionalexperiencestillremains.
3. Looginen muisti
isthememoryintheformofthoughts,concepts,orpropositions.Suchasthememoryofmathematicaltheorems,formulas,andphilosophicalpropositions.Thistypeofmemoryisbasedonabstractlogicalthinkingandhasthecharacteristicsofgeneralization,comprehension,andlogic.
4. Toimintamuisti (harjoitusmuisti)
isamemorythatcontainspeople’spastoperationalbehaviors.Allactionsandactionpatternsthatpeoplehavekeptintheirmindsbelongtoactionmemory.Suchasgymnasticsmovements,martialartsroutinesduringphysicaleducationclass,andtheoperationprocessduringexperimentalclasswillleavecertaintracesinthemind.Thiskindofmemoryisofgreatsignificancetothecontinuityandaccuracyofpeople'smovements,andisthebasisfortheformationofmovementskills.
Theabovefourmemoryformsarenotonlydifferent,butalsocloselyrelated.Forexample,thereisaclearimageintheactionmemory.Iflogicalmemorydoesnothaveemotionalmemory,itscontentisdifficulttomaintainforalongtime.
Ajan mukaan
1.Transientmemory
Transientmemoryisalsocalledsensorymemory.Thiskindofmemoryreferstotheshortperiodofstimulusinformationinthesensorychannelafterthestimulusthatactsonpeopleceases.Reserve.Thestoragetimeofinformationisveryshort,generallybetween0.25and2seconds.Thecontentoftheinstantaneousmemorycanonlyberealizedafterattentionandentertheshort-termmemory.
2.Short-termmemory
Short-termmemoryisamemorywhoseretentiontimeisabout1minute.AccordingtotheexperimentalresearchofL·R·PetersonandM·J·Peterson,withoutretelling,thecorrectrateofrecalldropstoabout10%after18seconds.Ifitisnotrepeated,itwillfadeordisappearwithinabout1minute.Somepeoplethinkthatshort-termmemoryisalsoworkingmemory,akindofmemorythatservesthecurrentaction,thatis,theshort-termextractionandretentionofmemorycontentthatpeopleneedintheworkingstate.
Lyhytaikaisella muistilla on kolme ominaisuutta:
Teeman muistikapasiteetti on rajoitettu Millerin tutkimuksen mukaan 7±2 lohkoa."Block"on muistiyksikkö, ja lohkon koko vaihtelee ihmisten tietämyksen ja kokemuksen mukaan. Lohko voi olla merkki, sana, numero, sanalause, lause, sanaluettelo jne.
Short-termmemoryismainlybasedonauditorycoding,withbothvisualcoding.
Thecontentofshort-termmemorygenerallyneedstoberetelledbeforeitcanenterlong-termmemory.
3.Long-termmemory
Long-termmemoryreferstothelong-termretentionofinformationinthemindaftersufficientanddeepprocessing.Intermsoftime,allmemoriesthatareretainedinthemindformorethan1minutearelong-termmemories.Thecapacityoflong-termmemoryisverylarge,andthestoredinformationisalsocodedbymeaning.Whenweusuallysaythatmemoryisgoodorbad,itmainlyreferstolong-termmemory.
Althoughtheinstantaneousmemorysystem,short-termmemorysystem,andlong-termmemorysystemeachhavetheirowncharacteristicsofinformationprocessing,theyarecontinuousfromtheperspectiveoftimeconnection,andtherelationshipisalsoveryclose.
Esittely
Esittelyistheimagethatispreservedinthemindandreproducedfromthethingsthathavebeenperceivedinthepast.Becauseimageryisanimportantcontentandformofmemory,imageryisalsocalledmemoryimagery.Imageryisgenerallyformedonthebasisofperception.Becauseofthedifferentsensoryorgansthatplayamajorrole,imagerycanbedividedintodifferenttypessuchasvisualimagery,auditoryimagery,tactileimagery,andmotionimagery.Althoughappearanceisformedonthebasisofperception,itactuallygetsridofthelimitationsofperceptionandhasitsownobviouscharacteristics.
Appearanceisthefoundationofstudentlearning.Studentsmustusememoryimagesextensivelytounderstandandacquireknowledge,andtocontinuouslyadvanceandimproveinlearning.Onthecontrary,theywillfallbehindinlearning.Accordingtoresearch,manystudentswithpooracademicperformanceareduetolackofobservationskillsandtoofewrepresentationsintheirminds.
Näkyvyys (intuitiivisuus)
Itreferstothecharacteristicthattheimagemaintainedinthemindappearsintheformofavividandconcreteimage,andhascertainsimilaritieswiththepastperception..Becausethereisaprocessofrepresentationinthemind,theimageryofrepresentationisalsodifferentfromtheperceivedimage.Thesedifferencesaremainlymanifestedin:
Ulkonäkö ei havaitse eloisaa, konkreettista ja eloisaa kuvaa, eikä se ole epämääräinen.
Theappearanceisnotascompleteastheperceivedimage,whichisfragmentedandfragmented.
Theappearanceisnotasstableastheperceivedimage,whichisvolatileandvariable.
Forexample,theimageofTiananmenstandingonTiananmenSquareisconcrete,complete,andstable.WhenrecallingTiananmen,Theappearancesthatappearinthemindarerelativelypoorintermsofclarityandcompleteness.
Yleisyys
Itreferstotheimageofthingsreflectedbytheappearance,notaspecificthingoritsindividualcharacteristics,butthecommoncharacteristicsofaclassofthings,whichisakindofcategorizationTheimageofthings.Thispointisalsoanotherdifferencebetweenappearanceandperceivedimage.Aswehaveseen,theimageofchalkisspecific,butwhenrecallingchalk,itsimagealwayshasthecharacteristicsofchalk,whichisageneralizationoftheimageofthingslike"chalk".However,thegeneralizationofappearanceisdifferentfromthegeneralizationofthinking.Representationisageneralizationofaclassofthings,whilegeneralizationofthinkingisageneralizationoftheessenceandlawsofthings,andisgenerallyanabstractgeneralization.
Imageisanimportantpsychologicalphenomenon,anditssignificanceismainlymanifestedin:
Memoryimageisanimportantcontentandformofmemory.Theknowledgeandexperiencestoredinpeople'smindsisnothingmorethantwoforms:oneistheformofrepresentationandtheotheristheformoflanguage.Accordingtoresearch,theratioofthesetwoformsisabout1000:1.Abundantstorageofrepresentationsisthebasisforpeopletounderstandabstractthings,anditisalsoanimportantpsychologicalbasisforpeopletodealwithdailyaffairs.
Memoryimageryisanintermediatelinkinpeople'scognitivedevelopmentchain,andabridgefromperceptiontothinking.Onlybyanalyzingandprocessingappearancesinthemindcanwegainarationalunderstandingofthings.
Kurinalainen kehitys
Mainentry:Memories
6centuryBC,ancientGreeceHumanParmonidesbelievesthathumanmemoryisamixtureoflightanddark(orhotandcold)substances.Aslongasthemixtureisnotdisturbed,thememoryiscomplete.Oncethemixturechanges,therewillbeforgetting.
ThefirstpersontoputforwardanimportantconceptonmemorywasthethinkerPlatointhe4thcenturyBC.Histheoryiscalledthe"waxboardhypothesis".Hebelievesthatpeoplegetanimpressionofthings,justlikethemarkleftbyahardobjectwithedgesandcornersonawaxplate.Afterpeoplegetanimpressionofthings,theimpressionwillslowlyfadeandevendisappearcompletelyovertime.Itisasifthesurfaceofthewaxplategraduallyreturnstoitssmoothness.Theso-called"smoothwaxplate"isequivalenttototalforgetting.Althoughthistheoryisnotperfectandaccurate,itstillaffectsmanypeople.
Untilthe17thcenturyAD,therewasalmostnomajorprogressinmemoryresearch.Inthemiddleofthe17thcentury,the"associative"psychologyschoolrepresentedbyHobbesandLockeappearedinBritain.Hobbesmadeamaterialisticanalysisofthephenomenonofmemory;Lockeputforwardtheterm"association",animportantmemoryphenomenonforthefirsttimeinthehistoryofEuropeanpsychology.Sincethen,"association"hasbecomeaspecializedterm.
ThefirstsystematicexperimentonmemoryinthehistoryofpsychologywasthefamousGermanpsychologistEbbinghaus.Hismaincontributiontothestudyofmemoryistocarryoutarigorousquantitativemeasurementofmemory,andtodoimportantresearchonthelawofmemoryretentionanddrawthefamous"Ebbinghausmemoryforgettingcurve".In1885hepublishedthebook"OnMemory".Sincethen,memoryhasbecomeanimportantfieldofpsychologicalresearch.
AftertheSecondWorldWar,especiallysincethe1960s,memoryresearchhasattractedmoreandmoreattention.TheUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,Japan,theSovietUnionandothercountrieshavesetupmemorylawcolleges,oropenedcorrespondenceteaching,andbegantocarryoutuniversaleducationforpeopletoenhancememory.