Introduction
AlthoughtheIPaddresscanuniquelymarkthecomputeronthenetwork,theIPaddressisalongstringofnumbers,whichisnotintuitive,anditisveryinconvenientforuserstoremember,sopeopleinventeditagainAnothersetofcharacter-basedaddressschemesistheso-calleddomainnameaddress.Thereisaone-to-onecorrespondencebetweentheIPaddressandthedomainname.Thisdomainnameaddressinformationisstoredinahostcalledadomainnameserver(DNS,Domainnameserver).Usersonlyneedtoknowtheeasy-to-rememberdomainnameaddress,andthecorrespondingconversionworkwillbereserved.Givethenameserver.AdomainnameserverisaserverthatprovidesconversionservicesbetweenIPaddressesanddomainnames.
Domainnameaccessstructure:
Hostname,organizationname,networkname,top-leveldomainname
Thisisahierarchicalmanagementmode,thedomainnameusestextTheexpressioniseasiertorememberthantheIPaddressrepresentedbynumbers.AlllevelsofnetworksthathavejoinedtheInternetnamethecomputersinthenetworkaccordingtothenamingrulesofthedomainnameserver,andareresponsibleforcompletingtheconversionofdomainnamestoIPaddresseswhencommunicating.TheNationalDefenseDataNetworkCommunicationsCenter(DINNIO),whichbelongstotheUSDepartmentofDefense,isresponsiblefortheregistrationandmanagementoftheInternet'shighest-leveldomainnames,anditisalsoresponsiblefortheassignmentofIPaddresses.Domainnamesarecomposedoftwobasictypes:domainsnamedafterinstitutionsanddomainsnamedaftercountrycodes.Commondomainsnamedafterthenatureoftheorganizationgenerallyconsistofthreecharacters.
DevelopmentHistory
OnJanuary1,1985(thepossibilityofresettingtheregistrationdateisnotexcluded),thefirstdomainnamenordu.netwasregisteredinthehistoryofdomainnames.OnMarch15,1985,Symbolicsregisteredthefirst.comdomainnameinhistory.Atthattime,domainnameregistrationwasjustemerging,andtherewereveryfewapplicants.
TheWWWprotocolappearedontheInternetin1993,anddomainnamesbegantoreceiveattention.
In1993,NetworkSolutions(NSI)signedafive-yearcontractwiththeU.S.governmenttoexclusivelyrepresenttheregistrationrightsofthreeinternationaltop-leveldomainnames.COM,.ORG,and.NET.Thedomainnamesatthetimewereonlyabout7000intotal.
Since1994,NSIhaschargedaregistrationfeeofUS$100foreachdomainname,andamanagementfeeofUS$50peryearaftertwoyears.
Atthebeginningof1998,NSIhasregisteredmorethan1.2milliondomainnames,90%ofwhichusethe".COM"suffix,andmorethan60millionUSdollarsinrevenue.Itisestimatedthatbymid-1999,thecompanywillgenerate200millionUSdollarsinannualrevenueonlyfordomainnameregistrationfees.
OnJuly1,1997,aspartoftheUSgovernment's"GlobalElectronicCommerceSystem"managementpolicy,PresidentClintonentrustedtheUSDepartmentofCommercetoprivateizethedomainnamesystemandintroducecompetitionmechanisms,andpromoteinternationalparticipation.OnJuly2,theU.S.DepartmentofCommerceannouncedaninvitationforpublicsolicitationofproposalsandevaluations.TheroleoftheU.S.governmentindomainnamemanagement,theoverallstructureofthedomainSolicitopinionsfromallpartiesontheissue.
OnJanuary30,1998,theU.S.DepartmentofCommerceformallyannouncedthe"DraftofDomainNameTechnicalManagementImprovement(DiscussionDraft)"throughitswebsite.The"GreenPaper"completedbyPresidentClinton’sInternetpolicyadviserMcGregorstatedthattheU.S.governmentwill"cautiouslyandgently"transferthemanagementofInternetdomainnamesfromtheU.S.governmenttoprivateorganizations.TheGreenPaperconcludesFourbasicprinciplesonthedomainnameissuewereaddressed,namely,thestabilityofthetransferprocess,thecompetitivenessofthedomainnamesystem,"thorough"collaborationandnon-governmentalnature,andtherepresentativenessthatreflectstheneedsofallinternationalusers.Undertheseprinciples,theGreenPaperproposestoformaprivatenon-profitenterprisetotakeoverthemanagementofdomainnames,andtransferthedomainnamemanagementfunctionsoftheUSgovernmenttothisjointenterprisebeforeSeptember30,1998,andby2000atthelatestThetransferofallmanagementroleswillbesuccessfullycompletedbeforeSeptember30.
InJune1998,theClintonadministrationpublishedawhitepapersuggestingthatnon-profitorganizationstakeoverthegovernment’sdomainnamemanagementfunctions.Thereportdoesnotspecifythesourceoffundingfortheagency,butitsetsoutsomeguidingprinciplesandrecommendstheformationofanon-profitorganization.
OnSeptember30,1998,theU.S.governmentterminateditscontractwiththecurrentdomainnameproviderNSI.AnexistingagreementbetweenthetwopartieswillbeextendedfortwoyearstoSeptember30,2000.Accordingtotheagreement,NSIwillworkwithothercompaniestoundertaketheregistrationofInternettop-leveldomainnames.NSIandtheNationalTelecommunicationsandInformationAdministration(NTIA)oftheUnitedStatesDepartmentofCommercewillstartthesharedregistrationsysteminphasesstartingonMarch31,1999,andwillbefullyimplementedonJune1,1999.
InOctober1998,ICANNwasestablished,anon-profitInternetmanagementorganization.ItsignedanagreementwiththeU.S.governmenttotakeovertheoriginalresponsibilitiesofIANA,andisresponsibleformonitoringpoliciesandagreementsrelatedtoInternetdomainnamesandaddresses,whilethegovernmentadoptsanon-interventionpolicy.
OnJuly20,2018,theMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologyapprovedBaiduOnlineNetworkTechnology(Beijing)Co.,Ltd.tobecomethedomainnameregistryofthe".BAIDU"top-leveldomain,responsibleforoperation,maintenanceandmanagement".BAIDU"top-leveldomainserver.
InJanuary2020,LiMinghua,headofBaidu’sDNS,saidthatBaiduSearch,whichismostfrequentlyusedbyChineseusers,willfullysupportChinesedomainnames.
Domainnameresolution
ThedomainnameresolutionservicewasfirstinventedbyPaulMocapecosin1983;theoriginaltechnicalspecificationswerepublishedintheDraftInternetStandard882(RFC882).DomainNameSystem(DNS,DomainNameSystem,sometimesreferredtoastheDomainNameSystem)isacoreserviceoftheInternet.ItservesasadistributeddatabasethatcanmapdomainnamesandIPaddressestoeachother.ThecorrespondingIPaddress(IPaddress)conversionsystem,themachineequippedwiththedomainnamesystemiscalledthedomainnameserver,whichcanmakeitmoreconvenientforpeopletoaccesstheInternetwithouthavingtorememberthenumberofIPaddressesthatcanbedirectlyreadbythemachinestring.DraftNos.1034and1035issuedin1987amendedtheDNStechnicalspecificationsandabolishedthepreviousdraftNos.882and883.Afterthat,therevisionoftheInternetstandarddraftbasicallydidnotinvolvethechangeofDNStechnicalspecifications.
Forexample,www.wikipedia.orgisadomainnameandcorrespondstotheIPaddress208.80.152.2.DNSislikeanautomaticphonebook,wecandirectlydialthenameofwikipediainsteadofphonenumber(IPaddress).Afterwedirectlycallthenameofthewebsite,DNSwillconvertahuman-friendlyname(suchaswww.wikipedia.org)intoanIPaddressthatiseasytorecognizebymachines(suchas208.80.152.2).
DomainNameServer
Themethodofdomainnameservermanagementistodividethenamesofvarioussubsystemsintodifferentgroups.Eachlayerinthesystemiscalledadomain,andeachdomainisseparatedbyadot.Theso-calleddomainnameserver(namely,DomainNameServer,NameServer,DNSforshort)isactuallyahostwithadomainnamesystem.Itisahierarchicalstructuredatabasethatcanperformnameresolution.
DNScanallowanameserverto"delegate"apartofitsnameservice(well-knownzone)tosubservers,thusrealizingahierarchicalstructureofthenamespace.Inaddition,DNSalsoprovidessomeadditionalinformation,suchassystemaliases,contactinformation,andwhichhostisactingasthemailhubforthesystemgroupordomain.
Currently,thelimitforthelengthofeachlevelofdomainnameis63characters,andthetotallengthofthedomainnamecannotexceed253characters.DomainnamesarealsolimitedtoasubsetofASCIIcharacters,whichpreventsmanyotherlanguagesfromcorrectlyrepresentingtheirnamesandwords.ThePunycode-basedIDNAsystemcanmapUnicodestringstoavalidDNScharacterset,whichhasbeenverifiedandadoptedbysomeregistrationagenciesasaworkaround.
Inaddition,thereisnodistinctionbetweenupperandlowercaseindomainnames.Thedomainnamegenerallycannotexceed5levels.Thelevelofthedomainfromlefttorightbecomeshigher,andthehigher-leveldomainincludesthelower-leveldomain.ThedomainnameisuniqueintheentireInternet.Whenthehigh-levelsubdomainsarethesame,thelow-levelsubdomainsarenotallowedtoberepeated.AservercanonlyhaveoneIPaddress,butitcanhavemultipledomainnames.
Domainnameisthe"secondgeneration"ofnetworkaddressing.URListheabbreviationofUniformResourceLocation,translatedas"UniformResourceLocator".
TheDNSsystemisdrivenbyvariousDNSsoftware,including:
BIND(BerkeleyInternetNameDomain),whichisthemostwidelyusedDNSsoftware.
DJBDNS(DanJBernstein'sDNSimplementation)
MaraDNS
NSD(NameServerDaemon)
PowerDNS
AnycomputernetworkusingIPcanbeusedDNStoimplementhisownprivatenamesystem.Nevertheless,whenreferringtodomainnamesimplementedonthepublicInternetDNSsystem,theterm"domainname"ismostcommonlyused.
Thisisbasedon13global"rootservers".Exceptfor3ofthem,themaintenanceorganizationsarealllocatedintheUnitedStates.Startingfromthese13rootservers,theremainingInternetDNSnamespaceisdelegatedtootherDNSservers,whichprovidespecificpartsoftheDNSnamespace.
The"owner"ofadomainnamecanbefoundbyqueryingthewhoisdatabase;formostgTLDs,thebasicWHOISismaintainedbyICANN,whilethedetailsoftheWHOISaremaintainedbythedomainregistrarthatcontrolsthatdomain.Asfordomainregistrationswithmorethan240nationaldomainnames(ccTLDs),thecorrespondingcountriesmaintaintheirWHOIS.
Currently,thecontrolmethodoftheDNSsystemisoftencriticized.ThemostfrequentlyattackedfocusistheabuseofDNSbymonopolisticorquasi-monopolisticcompanies,suchasVeriSign,andthedistributionoftop-leveldomainnames.
SomepeoplealsoclaimthatmanyDNSserversoftwarecannotworkwellondynamicIPallocation,althoughthisisafailureofsomespecificimplementationsratherthanaproblemoftheprotocolitself.
DNSusesTCPandUDPport53.
Type
Top-leveldomainname
English:Top-leveldomains,first-leveldomains(TLDs),alsotranslatedintointernationaltop-leveldomainnames.
Generictop-leveldomainmainentry:Generictop-leveldomain
Generictop-leveldomain:
Nosponsorship:.biz.com.edu.gov.info.int.mil.name.net.org.pro.xyz
Sponsorship:.aero.cat.coop.jobs.museum.travel.mobi.asia.tel.xxx
Basicarchitecture:.arpa.root.tel
Approvalstage:.post
Applicationstage:.geo.kid.mail.sco.web
Delete/retire:.nato
Reserved:.example.invalid.localhost.test
Pseudodomainname:.bitnet.csnet.local.onion.uucpOthers
Thefollowingarethegenerictop-leveldomainscurrentlyinuse(plus.arpa,sometimesconsideredtobeoneofthegenerictop-leveldomains):GeneralThetop-leveldomainwasestablishedinJanuary1985.Atthattime,therewere6generictop-leveldomains,whichweremainlyusedintheUnitedStates:
Descriptionofdomainname,creationtime,andscopeofuse:
.com-forcommercialorganizations,butthemostcommonlyusedwithoutlimitation,isfamiliarandusedbymostpeople
.net-January1985,originallyusedbynetworkserviceproviders,norestrictionsnow
.org-January1985,originalsupplyUsebyorganizationsthatdonotbelongtoothergTLDcategoriesisnowunlimited
.edu/.gov/.mil-January1985,forU.S.educationalinstitutions/U.S.governmentagencies/U.S.militaryagencies.Duetohistoricalissues,itisgenerallyonlyusedexclusivelyintheUnitedStates
InNovember1988,attherequestofNATO(NATO),theuseof.intwasstarted.ThedomainnamewasoriginallyplannedtobeusedinsomeInternetinfrastructuredatabases,suchas.ip6.int,whichistheIPv6versionof.in-addr.arpa.However,itwaslatersuggestedthatallnewdatabasesneedtobecreatedusing.arpa(thesameastheprevioussystemofTLD),andexistingoneswillalsobemovedto.arpaifpossible,sothatIPv6anti-searchingwilluse.ip6.arpa.
.int-November1988LeagueofNations,internationalorganizations,forusebyinternationalinstitutionsestablishedbytreaties
.arpa-isadomainreservedbytheU.S.military
In1997,theU.S.governmentstoppedtheestablishmentofIAHC7Recommendationsforanewgenerictop-leveldomain(.artsartinstitution,.firmbusinesscompany,.infoinformationagency,.nomindividual,.recrecreationagency,.storecommercialsalesagency,and.webInternetrelatedagencies).
OnNovember16,2000,ICANNreleased7newgTLDs:.aero,.biz,.coop,.info,.museum,.name,.pro.
.aero-fortheairtransportindustry
.biz-Forcommercialuse
.coop-Forusebycooperatives
.info-forusebyinformationalwebsites,butunlimited
.museum-forusebymuseums
.name-forfamilyandpersonaluse
.pro-forSomeprofessionaluse
AsofJune2005,ICANNannouncedseveralnewgTLDs:.cat,.jobs,.mobi,.post,.tel,.travel,.xxx,.kid.
.asia-FortheAsiancommunity
.cat-ForCatalan/culturaluse
.jobs-Forjob-relatedwebsites
li>.mobi-formobilephonesandotherdevicewebsites
.travel-forUsedbytravelagencies,airlines,hotels,andtouristassociations
.tel-ForservicesthatconnectthetelephonenetworkandtheInternet
ThefollowinggTLDsareunderreviewandmaybeaddedtothegTLDnameserversinthenearfuture:
.post-forpostalservices
.xxx-forpornographicwebsites
.mail-formailsites
UnofficialTLDandsuggestions:variousorganizationsandcommercialinstitutionshavesuggestedmanynewgenerictop-levelSomedomainswerecreatedmoreinformally,butdidnotfunctionproperly,including.berlin,.sco,.love,etc.
Mainarticleofcountrycodetop-leveldomains:countrycodetop-leveldomains(ccTLDs,countrycodetop-leveldomains)aregenerallytwo-letterbasedonISO-3166.Thetwo-wordsuffixindicatesthecountryorregionwherethedomainislocated,forexample:cn(MainlandChina),de(Germany),eu(EuropeanUnion),jp(Japan),hk(HongKong,China),tw(Taiwan,China),uk(UnitedKingdom),us(UnitedStates).(Inalphabeticalorder)
Countrycodetop-leveldomain:
.ac.ad.ae.af.ag.ai.al.am.an.ao.aq.ar.as.at.au.aw.az
.ba.bb.bd.be.bf.bg.bh.bi.bj.bm.bn.bo.br.bs.bt.bv.bw.by.bz
.ca.cc.cd.cf.cg.ch.ci.ck.cl.cm.cn.co.cr.cu.cv.cx.cy.cz
.de.dj.dk.dm.do.dz
.ec.ee.eg.er.es.et.eu
.fi.fj.fk.fm.fo.fr
.ga.gd.ge.gf.gg.gh.gi.gl.gm.gn.gp.gq.gr.gs.gt.gu.gw.gy
.hk.hm.hn.hr.ht.hu
.id.ie.il.im.in.io.iq.ir.is.it
.je.jm.jo.jp
.ke.kg.kh.ki.km.kn.kr.kw.ky.kz
.la.lb.lc.li.lk.lr.ls.lt.lu.lv.ly
.ma.mc.md.me.mg.mh.mk.ml.mm.mn.mo.mp.mq.mr.ms.mt.mu.mv.mw.mx.my.mz
.na.nc.ne.nf.ng.ni.nl.no.np.nr.nu.nz
li>.om
.pa.pe.pf.pg.ph.pk.pl.pm.pn.pr.ps.pt.pw.py
.qa
.re.ro.ru.rw
.sa.sb.sc.sd.se.sg.sh.si.sk.sl.sm.sn.so.sr.st.sv.sy.sz
.tc.td.tf.tg.th.tj.tk.tl.tm.tn.to.tr.tt.tv.tw.tz
.ua.ug.uk.us.uy.uz
.va.vc.ve.vg.vi.vn.vu
.wf.ws
.ye.yt.yu
.za.zm.zw
Reserved/unallocated:.cs.eh.kp
Allocated/unused:.ax.bv.gb.sj.um
Graduallysuspended:.tp.su
Delete/retire:.cs.dd.zr
Inuse:
.cnstandsforChina,endingwith.cnistheChinesedomesticdomainname,whichisapplicabletovariousdomesticinstitutionsandenterprises,oftencalledItisanEnglishdomestictop-leveldomainnameandanEnglishdomainnameofthe.CNcategory.ItwasbornandopenedonDecember31,1997.TheregistrationofficeisCNNIC.Accordingtonationalregulations,therearesixtypesofsecond-leveldomainnameswithsuffix:
.com.cn.net.cn.org.cn.gov.cn.edu.cn.Nowtheregistrationofthe.cnsecond-leveldomainnameisopen.
Islandcountrydomainname:Ithasreachedanagreementwithsomeprivatecompaniestoopenittotheworld.
.tv:Birth--The.tvCorporationboughtitfromTuvalu,asmallPacificcountry,forUS$50millionin2000,January2001OpenedinJanuary,theregistrationofficeisThe.tvCorporation.ItischaracterizedbydirectlyformingtheconceptassociationsofTV,video,andaudio-visual.
.cc:born--eNICGrouppurchased.ccfromtheCocosIslandsintheIndianOceanin2000,openedinJanuary2001,andregisteredItiseNICCorporation.Featuresaresimple,easytoremember,easytoidentify,andhighlyimaginative.Thecreationof.ccdomainnameportalsbymajorinternationalcompaniessuchasIntelandCoca-colashowsthatthevalueof.ccisincreasingdaybyday.
Otherleveldomainnames
Inadditiontothetop-leveldomainname,thereisalsothesecond-leveldomainname(SLD,second-leveldomain),whichisclosesttotheleftsideofthetop-leveldomainnameField.Forexample,inzh.wikipedia.org,wikipediaisthesecond-leveldomainname(somedatabelievethatafterthetop-leveldomainname,thereisafirst-leveldomainname,thenzhisthesecond-leveldomainname).
Nextisthethird-leveldomainname,thatis,thefieldclosesttotheleftofthesecond-leveldomainname.Fromrighttoleft,therearefourth-leveldomainnames,fifth-leveldomainnames,andsoon.Takeanexampleofathird-leveldomainnameinuse,www.ncic.ac.cn,wherethewwwprefixindicatesthatthisdomainnamecorrespondstotheWorldWideWebservice.EachdomainnameisdividedbyEnglishhalf-widthperiods,and"ncic"asthethird-leveldomainnameis"ac.cn"subdomain.
Domainnameregistration
Registrationofdomainnamesdiffersdependingonthemanagementorganization.
Generallyspeaking,gTLDdomainnamemanagementagenciesonlyformulatedomainnamepoliciesanddonotinvolveuserregistrationmatters.Theseagencieswilldelegateregistrationmatterstothetop-levelregistrarsthathavepassedthereview,andthenthetop-levelregistrationThedealerauthorizestoothersecond-andthird-levelagents.
TheregistrationofccTLDismorecomplicated.Inadditiontofollowingtheaforementionedspecifications,somecountriessubcontractdomainnamestocertaincompaniesformanagementasmentionedabove(suchasWesternSamoaws),andtherearealsoregulatoryagenciesandtop-levelregistrationagencies.Status:(suchasSouthAfricaza).
Differentdomainnameregistrationsrequiredifferentqualifications.Exceptforafewexceptions(suchastravel),gTLDsgenerallyhavenoqualifications;whileccTLDsoftenhavequalificationsrestrictionsandevenrequirephysicalcertificates.
TheownerofadomainnamecanbefoundbyqueryingtheWHOISdatabase;formostrootdomainnameservers,thebasicWHOISismaintainedbyICANN,whilethedetailsoftheWHOISaremaintainedbythedomainregistrarthatcontrolsthatdomain.Beforeregisteringadomainname,youcanfindoutthestatusofdomainnameregistrationthroughWhoisqueryprovider.Formorethan240countrycodetop-leveldomains(ccTLDs),thedomainnameauthorityregistrationauthorityisusuallyresponsibleformaintainingWHOIS.
Generallyspeaking,.comregisteredusersarecompaniesorenterprises,.orgisacorporatelegalperson,.eduisaschoolunit,and.govisagovernmentagency.
Whenapplicantsapplyfordomainnameregistration,theycansubmitadomainnameregistrationapplicationformtothedomainnameregistrarnetworkthroughdomainnameregistrationquery,onlineregistration,email,etc.,submitadomainnameregistrationapplication,andsignwiththedomainnameregistrarDomainnameregistrationagreement.
Thecontentofthedomainnameregistrationapplicationformshouldinclude:
Theapplieddomainname;
DomainnameserverThehostnameandIPaddressofthedomainnameserver;
Thenameoftheorganizationofthedomainnameholder,thepersoninchargeoftheorganization,theindustryoftheorganization,mailingaddress,postalcode,email,Telephonenumber,faxnumberandcertificationinformation;
Nameofdomainnametechnicalcontact,managementcontact,paymentcontact,contractor'sname,unitname,mailingaddress,postalcode,Emailaddress,telephonenumberandfaxnumber.
Theregistrationofdomainnamesfollowstheprincipleoffirstapplication,firstregistration.Themanagementagencydoesnotconductanysubstantiveexaminationonwhetherthedomainnameproposedbytheapplicantviolatestherightsofathirdparty.Atthesametime,everydomainnameregistrationqueryisuniqueandnon-repeatable.Therefore,ontheInternet,domainnameisarelativelylimitedresource,anditsvaluewillgraduallybevaluedbypeopleasthenumberofregisteredenterprisesincreases.
Price
Pricesindifferentregionsmaybedifferent,thefollowingarethepricesinMainlandChina:
Generally,thepriceofdirectpurchaseof.comdomainnameis1AtRMB50peryear,thewholesalepriceofbuying100domainnamesfromICANNasanagentisaround30yuanperyear.
Thepriceofbuyinga.cndomainnamedirectlyisaround60yuan/year.Thepriceofbuying500domainnamesfromCNNICasanagentcanbediscountedto28yuan/year.Theagentwillnotberenewed.Preferential,iftheagentdoesnotsellout,itstillhastoberenewedatapriceof60yuan/year.However,sinceMarch2007,thepriceof.cndomainnameshasbeenmaintainedatRMB1peryear.AccordingtoCNNIC,theeventwillcontinueuntilDecember31,2008.Aftertheevent,fromDecember14,2009,therenewalpriceof.cndomainnameis80yuanayear,andtheregistrationpriceis150yuanayear,andregistrationisnotopentoindividuals.Registrantsmustprovidebusinesslicenseororganizationcode.
Domainnameregistration
1.Fordomainnameswithwebsites.(Domainnameswithoutawebsitedonotneedtobefiled)
2.RefertotherelevantinformationsubmittedtothewebsiteoftheMinistryofInformationIndustry.
ThepurposeofdomainnameregistrationistopreventillegalwebsitebusinessactivitiesontheInternetandcombatthespreadofbadInternetinformation.Ifthewebsiteisnotfiled,itislikelytobeshutdownafterinvestigation.Afterthedomainnameregistrationapplicationissuccessful,thecustomerservicewilltaketheinitiativetofilethedomainname,andthereviewtimeforthedomainnameregistrationisgenerallyabout7workingdays.Aftertheauditissuccessful,youcanaccessitnormally.Inaccordancewiththespiritofthe"MeasuresfortheAdministrationofRecordationofNon-commercialInternetInformationServices"deliberatedandapprovedbytheMinistryofInformationIndustryofthePeople'sRepublicofChinaatthetwelfthministerialmeeting,theprovisionofnon-commercialInternetinformationserviceswithintheterritoryofthePeople'sRepublicofChinashouldberegistered!Nonon-commercialInternetinformationservicemaybeconductedwithintheterritoryofthePeople'sRepublicofChinawithoutfiling.Forwebsitesthathavenotbeenfiled,theywillbefinedorshutdown.Filingreferstoreportingthemattertothecompetentauthorityforfilingforinspection.Fromtheperspectiveofadministrativelaw,inpractice,itismainlytheprovisionsofthe"LegislationLaw"andthe"RegulationsontheRecordofRegulations".
LegalResearch
Inthefieldoflaw,whetherthereisanindependent"domainnameright"isstillindispute,evenamongthosewhoagreewiththeviewof"domainnameright".Intime,therearemanydifferentunderstandingsoftheconnotationandextensionofthisconcept.
Therightsrelatedtodomainnamesfaceconflictswithmanyexistingrightssuchastrademarkrights,geographicalindications,namerights,andmanufacturernamerights.Amongthem,theconflictwithtrademarkrightsisthemostprominent.JudgingfromthelegalpracticeofvariouscountriesincludingChina,ifadomainname(especiallyincluding".com")isidenticalorsimilartoawell-knowntrademarkthatexistedbeforethedomainnameregistration,itwillcauseconfusionandthedomainnameregistrantcannotproveIfheisnotmalicious,thetrademarkownercanobtaincontrolofthedomainnamefromthedomainnameregistrantthroughlitigationornon-litigationdisputeresolution,throughthedomainnamemanagementagency.
ChinaDomainNameManagement
Real-NameSystem
SinceNovember2009,Chinahasimplementedareal-namesystemfordomainnames.AsofSeptember2010,theresolutionof462,000CNdomainnamesthatrefusedtosubmitreal-nameverificationmaterialshasbeensuspended,theresolutionof636,000domainnamesthathavenotbeenapprovedbytheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologyofChinahasbeenstopped,andtheresolutionof5,200pornographicdomainnameshasbeenstopped.
Document
OnAugust25,2018,theStateCouncildistributedthe"NoticeoftheGeneralOfficeoftheStateCouncilonStrengtheningtheManagementofGovernmentWebsiteDomainNames",thenoticeisasfollows:
1.Improvethedomainnamemanagementsystemofgovernmentwebsites
(1)Implementthedomainnamemanagementresponsibilitiesofgovernmentwebsitesponsors.Thehostofgovernmentwebsitesshallmanagethedomainnamesofgovernmentwebsitesinaccordancewiththeprincipleof"whosetsup,whoappliesfor,whouses,andwhoisresponsible".Inprinciple,onlyoneChinesedomainnameandoneEnglishdomainnameareregisteredforagovernmentwebsite.Iftherearemultipledomainnamesthatmeettherequirements,themaindomainnameshouldbespecified.Donottransfertheregisteredgovernmentwebsitedomainnametootherunitsorindividualswithoutauthorization,andtheidledomainnamemustbecancelledintime.
(2)Strengthenthedomainnamesupervisionresponsibilityofthegovernmentwebsitesupervisoryunit.Thegovernmentwebsitesupervisoryunitshouldmakedomainnamemanagementanimportantpartofwebsitesupervision,strengthenoverallcoordinationandbusinessguidance,anduniformlyreviewandcheckdomainnameregistration,modification,andcancellation.Incorporatedomainnamemanagementintothescopeofnormalizedrandominspections,andincreaseaccountabilityforreportingandaccountabilityforviolationsofregistration,cancellation,orunauthorizedrenting,lending,ortransferofdomainnames.Ifseriousconsequencesarecaused,theleadersinchargeandrelevantresponsiblepersonsshallbedealtwithinaccordancewiththelaw.Seriouslydealwithitinaccordancewithregulations.DepartmentsoftheStateCouncilthatarenotverticallymanaged,iftheyrequireprovincialandprefecture-levelgovernmentdepartmentsundertheirbusinessguidancetoopenwebsitesandusetheirassigneddomainnames,theyshallassumetheresponsibilityofthemainbodyofwebsitesupervision.
(3)Establishacollaborativemanagementmechanismforgovernmentwebsitedomainnames.TheCentralCyberspaceAffairsOfficeandtheCentralAuthorizationOfficeshall,inaccordancewiththedivisionofresponsibilities,doagoodjobinthesupervisionandsecuritymanagementofthedomainnamesofgovernmentwebsites.TheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologystrengthensthemanagementofthedomainnameindustry,doesagoodjobintheregistrationoftheInternetInformationService(ICP)ofthemainbodyofgovernmentwebsites,andsupervisesthedomainnameservice.TheMinistryofPublicSecuritydoesagoodjobindailysecuritysupervisionofgovernmentwebsitedomainnames.Thegovernmentwebsitesupervisoryunitshouldimprovethecoordinationmechanismwiththecorrespondinglevelofnetworkinformation,institutionalestablishment,industryandinformation,andpublicsecuritydepartments,strengthencommunicationandcooperation,anddoagoodjobinreportingandsharingimportantinformation.Fordiscoveredviolationsoflawsandregulations,theMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologyandthepublicsecuritydepartmentsshallcrackdownandinvestigateanddealwiththeminaccordancewiththedivisionofresponsibilitiesinaccordancewiththelaw.
2.Furtherstandardizethedomainnamestructureofgovernmentwebsites
GovernmentwebsitesshoulduseEnglishdomainnameswiththesuffix".gov.cn"and".政务"ForChinesedomainnameswithsuffixes,domainnameswithothersuffixesshallnotbeused.Inprinciple,publicinstitutionsthatdonotundertakeadministrativefunctionsmaynotuseEnglishdomainnameswiththesuffix".gov.cn".Governmentportalwebsitesestablishedbylocalpeople’sgovernmentsatorabovethecountylevelanddepartmentsoftheStateCouncilmustuseanEnglishdomainnamewiththestructureof"www.Thestring(thesamebelow).Websitesopenedbyprovincialandprefecture-levelgovernmentdepartmentsmustusethelower-levelEnglishdomainnameoftheportalwebsiteofthepeople’sgovernmentatthesamelevel.Thestructureis"○○○.OrthecorrespondingstringinEnglish(thesamebelow);thewebsiteofthegrassrootsunitoftheStateCouncildepartmentthatimplementsverticalmanagementshouldusethelower-leveldomainnameoftheStateCouncildepartment’sportalwebsite,andthestructureis"○○○.□□□.gov.cn".TheChinesedomainnamestructureofthegovernmentwebsiteshouldbe"△△△.GovernmentAffairs",where△△△isthefullnameorstandardizedabbreviationoftheChineseorganizationofthewebsitesponsor(thesamebelow).
Inprinciple,thecolumns,channels,topics,andbusinesssystemsofthegovernmentwebsiteusethesamedomainname,andthecolumnsofthegovernmentportalwebsiteuse"www.□□□.gov.cn/…/…"and"△△△.政务/…/…"domainnames;departmentwebsites(includingprovincial,prefecturalandmunicipalgovernmentdepartments,andthebasic-levelunitwebsitesoftheStateCouncildepartmentsthatimplementverticalmanagement)use"○○○.□□□.gov.cn/…/…"and"△△△.Government/…/…"domainnames.
3.Optimizetheprocessofregistrationandcancellationofgovernmentwebsitedomainnames
(1)Strictlyreviewtheregistrationandcancellationofgovernmentportalwebsitedomainnames.Provincialpeople’sgovernmentsanddepartmentsoftheStateCouncilmustregisterorcancelthedomainnamesofgovernmentportalwebsiteswiththeapprovalofthemainpersoninchargeoftheregionandthedepartment,reporttotheGeneralOfficeoftheStateCouncilfortherecord,andsubmitthebasicinformationformofgovernmentwebsitedomainnamebusinessapplicationstothenationaldomainnameregistrationauthority,".Gov.cn"EnglishdomainnameregistryistheChinaInternetNetworkInformationCenteroftheCentralCyberspaceAdministrationofChina,and".政务"ChinesedomainnameregistryistheCentralAdministrationOfficeofGovernmentAffairsandPublicWelfareOrganizationDomainNameRegistrationManagementCenter.Theregistrationorcancellationofthedomainnameofthegovernmentportalwebsitebythepeople'sgovernmentattheprefectureandcountylevelrequirestheapprovalofthemainpersoninchargeoftheregion,andsubmitsthebasicinformationformofthegovernmentwebsitedomainnamebusinessapplicationtotheoffice(office)ofthepeople'sgovernmentatthenexthigherlevel.Afterreviewingitlevelbylevel,TheGeneralOfficeoftheProvincialPeople'sGovernmentshallsubmitagovernmentwebsitedomainnamebusinessreviewformtothenationaldomainnameregistry.Thenationaldomainnameregistrationmanagementagencyshallverifytheinformationinaccordancewithlawsandregulations,andcompletetheregistrationorcancellationwithin3workingdaysaftertheverificationispassed.
(2)Strictlyreviewthedomainnameallocationandwithdrawalofdepartmentalwebsites.Provincial,prefecturalandmunicipalgovernmentdepartmentsmustobtaintheapprovalofthemainpersoninchargeofthedepartmenttoapplyfororcancelthedomainnameofthedepartment'swebsite,andsubmitthebasicinformationformofthegovernmentwebsitedomainnamebusinessapplicationtotheoffice(office)ofthepeople'sgovernmentatthesamelevel.Afterreviewingitlevelbylevel,ReporttotheGeneralOfficeoftheProvincialPeople'sGovernmentforapproval,andtheprovincialandprefecture-levelpeople'sgovernmentportalswillallocateorwithdrawthelower-leveldomainnamesofthedomainsofthegovernmentportalsatthecorrespondinglevelinaccordancewiththeapprovalopinions.Thedomainnamesofthebasic-levelunitwebsitesofthedepartmentsoftheStateCouncilthatimplementverticalmanagementshallbeallocatedortakenbackformanagementbytheportalwebsitesofthedepartmentsoftheStateCouncil.
(3)Reportthechangesofgovernmentwebsitedomainnameinformationinatimelymanner.Thechangeofthedomainnameholderofthegovernmentwebsiterequirestheapprovalofthegovernmentwebsitesupervisor;iftheregistrationinformationsuchasthecontactpersonchanges,itshouldbereportedtothegovernmentwebsitesupervisorwithin20workingdaysafterthechange.Iftheinformationrelatedtothedomainnameofthegovernmentportalwebsitechanges,thegovernmentwebsitesupervisorshallnotifythenationaldomainnameregistrytoupdatetheinformation.
(4)Coordinateandpromotetheintensificationofgovernmentwebsitesandthestandardizationofdomainnames.Aftertheintensificationofthegovernmentwebsite,ifthewebsiteisstillreservedbutthedomainnamedoesnotmeettherequirements,thedomainnameshouldbere-appliedaccordingtotheprocess.Thedomainnameadjustmentstatusisannouncedinaprominentpositiononthehomepageofthewebsitefor3months,andtheoriginaldomainnameiscancelled.Inprinciple,businesssystemsandserviceplatformswillnolongeroperateasindependentwebsites.Relatedinformationandservicesshouldbeintegratedandmigratedassoonaspossible,andtheoriginaldomainnameshouldbecancelledaccordingtotheprocess.
Four.Strengthendomainnamesecurityprotectionandmonitoringanddisposal
(1)Strengthendomainnameresolutionsecurityprotection.Itisnecessarytoactivelytakemeasuressuchasdomainnamesystem(DNS)securityprotocoltechnologyandanti-attacktechnologytopreventdomainnamesfrombeinghijackedandfraudulentlyused,andtoensurethesecurityofdomainnameresolution.Adomainnameresolutionserviceproviderwithemergencydisasterpreparednessandanti-attackcapabilitiesshouldbeentrustedtoperformdomainnameresolution,andcentralizedresolutionofgovernmentwebsitedomainnamesshouldbeencouraged.Governmentwebsiteserversthatareself-builtforoperationandmaintenancemustnotbeplacedoverseas;forrentingnetworkvirtualspace,therentedspaceshouldbelocatedinthedomesticnodeoftheserviceprovider.Thoseusingcontentdistributionnetwork(CDN)servicesshouldrequireserviceproviderstopointthedomainnameresolutionaddressesofdomesticuserstotheirdomesticnodes,andnottooverseasnodes.
(2)Strengthendomainnamemonitoringandhandling.Strengthenthedailymonitoringandregularinspectionandevaluationofthedomainnamesecurityofgovernmentwebsites,timelydiscoversecurityproblemssuchashijackingandfraudulentuseofdomainnames,improvethehandlingmechanism,andimproveemergencyresponseandhandlingcapabilities.Increasetheoverallcoordinationofthesecurityofthedomainnameofthegovernmentwebsite,andfindthatthetop-leveldomainnameregistration(suchas".cn",".net",".com"),etc.hasbeenappliedforbyimpersonation,andthegovernmentwebsitesupervisorshouldcoordinateindustryandinformationinatimelymannerTheMinistryofChemicalIndustry,theMinistryofPublicSecurityandthenationaldomainnameregistrationandmanagementagencyshallhandlethematter.Thenationaldomainnameregistryshouldimprovesecuritymanagementandtechnicalprotectionmeasures,increasethedailymonitoringoftheoperationofthenationalgovernmentwebsitedomainnames,andreportthemonitoringtothegovernmentwebsitesupervisor;strengthenthebackupandanalysisofthegovernmentwebsitedomainnameresolutiondata,andregularlycarryoutthegovernmentWebsitedomainnameserviceemergencydrillstoensurethestability,securityandreliabilityofanalysisservices.
Allregionsanddepartmentsshallcomprehensivelysortoutthedomainnamesheldbytheirrespectiveregions,theiradministrativeagenciesandtheirinternalinstitutions,andinstitutionsundertakingadministrativefunctions,andcleanupandcancelnon-compliantdomainnamesandwebsites.Domainnamesthathavebeenshutdownbuthavenotbeencancelled,anddomainnamesthathavebeenusedonnon-governmentwebsites.Amongthem,ifthedomainnameis".cn"or".政务",itwillbecollectivelyfedbacktothenationaldomainnameregistryforcancellation,andifthedomainnameisothertop-leveldomainnames,thedomainnameholdershallcontactthecorrespondingregistrationagencyforcancellation.PleasesubmitawrittenreporttotheGeneralOfficeoftheStateCouncilbeforeApril30,2019.
Toolsoftware
DomainnameanalysissoftwareDNA:ItisanexcellentdomainnameanalysistooldevelopedbysoftwaredesignerAnilKumar,whichcanrunontheChineseandEnglishversionofWin95On/Win98/NT/XP,ithasthefollowingfunctions:Itcanfindalltop-leveldomainnames(includinggTLDandcountrycodetop-leveldomainnames)registereddomainnameinformation.
IntervationDomainAlchemy:Domainnameanalysissoftware,anexcellentdomainnameanalysistool,whichcanrunontheChineseandEnglishversionsofWin95/Win98/NT.Only250Kbutthefunctionisnotweak.
Namelt(jwsg):Averysimpledictionary-styletoolthatcanhelpyoufindthenameofawebsite.AlltheprogramrequiresyoutodoistoenterthecontentthemeofyourwebsiteinstandardEnglishfonts,andindicatethetypeofwebsite,suchasbusiness,organization,orother.
whoisUltra:Thereisasecretweaponthatcanautomaticallysearchforandconfigureagooddomainnameforyouaccordingtothenameyouareinterestedin.
DomainQuester:Allowsyoutosearchfordomainnameswithunlimitedkeywords.Youonlyneedtoenteranynumberofkeywordsrelatedtoyourbusiness,andyoucanfindyourfavoritedomainname.
DomainNameFinder:isapowerfultoolfordomainnameregistrars.Findingagooddomainnameisnoteasynow.DomainNameFindercanhelpyou:Youcansearchforalargenumberofunregistereddomainnameswithjustafewkeywords.Note:ThisprogramisaserverprogramandrequiresPerl5environment.
See
Internetthemes
DNS
DomainNameServer
InternationalizedDomainName(IDN)
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