Cell Biology

Basicinformation

Cellbiologyistheresearchobjectofcell,fromtheoveralllevelofthecell,thesub-microscopiclevel,themolecularlevel,etc.,tostudythecellfromadynamicpointofviewAndthestructureandfunctionoforganelles,thelifehistoryofcellsandthelawsofvariouslifeactivities.Cellbiologyisoneofthefrontierbranchesofmodernlifesciences.Itmainlystudiesthebasiclawsofcelllifeactivitiesfromthedifferentstructurallevelsofcells.Fromtheperspectiveofthestructureoflife,cellbiologyislocatedbetweenmolecularbiologyanddevelopmentalbiology,andtheyareconnectedandpermeatedwitheachother.

Usingthetechnologicalachievementsofmodernphysicsandchemistryandthemethodsandconceptsofmolecularbiologytostudythescienceoflifeactivitiesatthecellularlevel,thecoreissueistheissueofheredityanddevelopment.

Abriefhistory

Althoughcellbiologyisarelativelyyoungsubject,itcanbetracedbacktoearliertimesinacademicthinking.In1883,GermanembryologistW.Luexpoundedontheideaof​​heredityanddevelopment.Heassumedthatthefertilizedeggcontainsallthegeneticmaterial,whichisnotevenlydistributedtothedaughtercellsduringcleavage.Thisdifferentqualitativedivisiondeterminesthefateofthedaughtercellsandtheiroffspring.GermanzoologistWeissmanndevelopedthisideaandputforwardthegermplasmtheory,whichbelievedthattheunevendivisionofblastomeresledtothedifferentiationofcells.Althoughtheseinsightshavebeenprovedtobewrong,itcanbeseenthattheproblemtobesolvedbycellbiologyhasbeenraisedatthattime.LaterE.B.Wilsonclearlypointedoutinhismasterpiece"Cells-InDevelopmentandHeredity"in1927:Cellsarethebasicunitoflifeactivities,anddevelopmentandinheritanceoftheselifephenomenashouldbestudiedoncells.In1934,aftertheAmericangeneticistandembryologistTHMorganmadegreatachievementsingenetics,hewroteinthebook"EmbryologyandGenetics"whichattemptedtofusedevelopmentandheredity:"ItisconceivablethateachprotoplasmicregionisThedifferenceinthebeginningaffectstheactivityofgenes,andthenthegenesreversetoaffecttheprotoplasm,andthelatterstartsaseriesofnewandcorrespondingreactions.Inthisway,wecanoutlinethegradualestablishmentanddifferentiationofvariouspartsoftheembryo."InMorgan’stime,becausecytologyandotheradjacentdisciplineshavenotyetbeencloselylinked,orotherdisciplineshavenotyetbeenabletocarryoutresearchondevelopmentandgeneticsatthecellularlevel,cellbiologycanonlybeafterthe1950s.Theconditionsinallaspectshavegraduallymaturedbeforeitcanflourish.

Fromtheresearchcontent,thedevelopmentofcellbiologycanbedividedintothreelevels,namely:themicroscopiclevel,theultramicrolevelandthemolecularlevel.Lookingattheverticalaxisoftime,thehistoryofcellbiologycanberoughlydividedintofourmainstages:

Thefirststage

Fromthelate16thcenturytothe1830s,thecellDiscoveryandaccumulationofcellularknowledge.Throughtheobservationofalargenumberofplantsandanimals,peoplehavegraduallyrealizedthatdifferentorganismsaremadeupofallkindsofcells.

Thesecondstage

SincetheadventofthecelltheoryofMJSchleidenandTAHSchwannin1839,ithasbeenestablishedthatcells(eukaryoticcells)aremulticellularbiologicalstructuresandlifeactivitiesThebasicunit.Anewresearchfieldhasbeenopenedup,butforalongtime,cytologyhasfocusedonthestructure,andstudyingthestructureandfunctionofcellsatthemicroscopiclevelisthemainfeatureofthisperiod.Theaccumulationofmorphology,embryologyandchromosomeknowledgehasenabledpeopletorealizetheimportantroleofcellsinlifeactivities.In1893,Hertwig'smonograph"CellsandTissues"(DieZelleunddieGewebe)waspublished,markingthebirthofcytology.Subsequently,TheCellinDevelopmentandHeredityeditedbyWilsonofColumbiaUniversityin1896andCytologyeditedbyAgarofMelbourneUniversityin1920weretheearliesttextbooksinthisfield.

Thethirdstage

Fromthe1930stothe1970s,aftertheemergenceofelectronmicroscopytechnology,peoplehaveaclearunderstandingoffinestructuresthatcannotbeseenunderopticalmicroscopes.Broughtcytologyintothethirdmajordevelopmentperiod.Inthisshortperiodof40years,notonlythevariousultrastructuresofcellshavebeendiscovered,butalsothefunctionsofcellmembranes,mitochondria,chloroplastsandotherstructureshavebeenrecognized,whichhasenabledcytologytodevelopintocellbiology.Atthesametime,theachievementsofmolecularbiologyandmoleculargeneticsusingprokaryotesasmaterialshaveenabledpeopletounderstandthebasicissuesofgeneticcode,centrallaws,andtheregulationandcontrolofgeneexpressioninprokaryotes,whichdirectlypromotedthedevelopmentofcellbiology.develop.TheGeneralCytologypublishedbyDeRobertisetal.in1924wasnamedCellBiologyinthefourtheditionin1965.Thisisoneoftheearliesttextbooksoncellbiology.

Thefourthstage

Fromtheemergenceofgenerecombinationtechnologyinthe1970stothepresent,thecombinationofcellbiologyandmolecularbiologyhasbecomemoreandmoreclose,studyingthemolecularstructureofcellsandItsroleinlifeactivitieshasbecomethemaintask.Generegulation,signaltransduction,tumorbiology,celldifferentiationandapoptosisarecurrentresearchhotspots.

Development

CellBiology(13photos)

Theimprovementofmicroscopictechnologyinthelate19thcentury,biofixationtechnology(eg:Fleming1882,1884;Canoy1886)andtheemergenceofstainingtechniqueshavegreatlyfacilitatedpeople’sunderstandingofcellmicrostructures.Variousorganelleshavebeendiscoveredoneafteranother.Theadventofelectronmicroscopyinthe1930sbroughtunprecedentedresearchoncellmorphology.Theclimax.Theriseofmolecularbiologyinthe1950spushedtheresearchofcellbiologytothemolecularlevel.

1.1831BritishRobertBrowndiscoveredplantcellnuclei.

2.1832BelgianC.J.Dumortierobservedthecelldivisionofalgaeandbelievedthatthecellsoriginatedfromtheoriginalcells.

3.1835GermanH.vonMolhcarefullyobservedthecelldivisionofplants,andbelievedthatitisaphenomenonthatiseasilyobservedinplantrootsandshoottips.

4.1835FrenchmanF.Dujardinfound"meat-likequality"(Sarcode)whenobservinglivinganimalcells.

5.1839CzechJ.E.Pukinyeusedthetermprotoplasmtodescribecellularmaterial,and"Protoplast"isatheologicaltermreferringtotheancestorAdam.

6.1841PolishR.Remakdiscoveredthedirectdivision(amitosis)ofbloodcellsofchickenembryos.

7.1846GermanH.vonMohlstudiedplantprotoplasmandpublished"identifiesprotoplasmasthesubstanceofcells".

8.1848GermanW.HofmeisterdescribedthepollenmothercellsofCommelinaCommelinaTradescantia,whichclearlyreflectedthechromosomes,buthedidnotrealizetheimportanceofone,40Yearslater,GermanH.vonWaldeyernameditChromosomebecausethisstructurecanbecoloredbybasicdyes.

9.1861GermanM.Shultzebelievedthatthefleshysubstanceinanimalcellshasthesamemeaningastheprotoplastinplants.Hedefinedthecellas:"thecellisanaccumulationoflivingsubstanceorprotoplasmdefinitelydelimitedinspaceandpossessingacellmembraneandnucleus."

10.1864GermanMaxSchultzeobservedtheplant'splasmodesmata.

11.1865GermanJ.vonSuchsdiscoveredchloroplasts.

12.1866AustrianG.Mendelpublishedtheresultsofahybridexperimentonpea,proposingthelawofgeneticsegregationandfreecombination.

13.In1868,theBritishTHHuxleyintroducedtheconceptofprotoplasmtotheTheBritishpublic.

14.1869SwissF.Miescherisolatednucleicacidfrompuscells.

15.1876GermanO.Hertwigdiscoveredthefertilizationofseaurchins,andhispaperwastitled"observethefertilizationofaseaurchinegg".

16.1879GermanW.Flemmingobservedthemitosisofsalamandercellsandproposedthetermmitosisin1882.Later,theGermanE.Strasburger(1876-80)discoveredmitosisinplantcells.Hebelievedthattheessenceofmitosiswastheformationofnuclearfilaments(chromosomes)andtheirevendistributiontotwodaughtercells.ThefertilizationofanimalsandplantswasessentiallyThefusionofpaternalandmaternalgametenuclei,andtheconceptofProphaseandMetaphasewasproposedin1984.

17.1882GermanE.Strasburgerproposedtheconceptsofcytoplasmandnucleoplasm.

18.1883BelgianE.vanBenedenprovedthatthenumberofchromosomesinthegametesofthehorseroundwormAscarismegalocephalaishalfthatofthesomaticcell,andthattheeggsandspermcontributetothezygoteduringthefertilizationprocessThenumberofchromosomesisequal.

19.1883BelgianE.vanBenedenandGermanT.Boveridiscoveredthecentrosome.

20.1884GermansO.HertwigandE.Strasburgerputforwardtheargumentthatthenucleuscontrolsheredity.

21.1886GermanA.Weismannputforwardthetheoryofgermplasm.

22.1890GermanRichardAltmanndescribedthemethodofstainingmitochondria.Hespeculatedthatmitochondriaarelikeinternalsymbiosisofcellsandbelievedthatmitochondriaarerelatedtoenergymetabolism.Healsoproposedtheconceptofnucleicacidin1889.

23.1892GermansT.BoveriandO.Hertwigstudiedtheessenceofmeiosisanddescribedthephenomenonofchromosomalunion.

24.1898ItalianC.GolgiobservedtheGolgibodywithsilverstaining.

25.1900Mendel'sgeneticlawpublished34yearsagowasrediscovered.

26.1905AmericanClarenceMcClungshowsthatfemalemammalshave2XchromosomesandthatmaleshaveanXandaY

27.In1908,AmericanTHMorganstartedhisfamousgeneticexperimentwithDrosophilamelanogaster.In1910,heproposedthechromosometheoryofinheritanceandpublished"PhysicalBasisofHeredity"in1919.Published"TheTheoryoftheGene"in1926

28.1910GermanA.KosselwontheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyandMedicine.Hefirstisolatedadenine,Thymineandhistidine.29.In1935,AmericanW.M.Stanleyobtainedthecrystalsoftobaccomosaicvirusforthefirsttime.

30.1940GermansG.A.KauscheandH.Ruskapublishedtheworld'sfirstelectronmicrographofchloroplasts.

31.1941AmericansG.W.BeadleandE.L.Tatumproposedtheconceptofonegeneandoneenzyme.

32.In1944,AmericanssuchasO.Avery,C.MacleodandM.McCarthyprovedthatDNAisgeneticmaterialthroughmicrobialtransformationexperiments.

33.1945K.R.Porter,A.ClaudeandE.F.FullamintheUnitedStatesdiscoveredtheendoplasmicreticuluminmousefibroblasts.

34.1949CanadianM.BardiscoveredthePasteurbody.

35.1951AmericanJamesBonnerdiscoveredthatmitochondriaarerelatedtocellularrespiration.

36.1953AmericanJ.D.WatsonandBritishF.H.C.CrickproposedtheDNAdoublehelixmodel.

37.1955BelgianC.deDuvediscoveredlysosomesandperoxisomes.

38.1955AmericanVincentDuVigneaudwontheNobelPrizeforsyntheticpeptides.

39.In1956,JiangYouxing(Chinese-American)usedthehypotonictreatmenttechnologyinventedbyXuDaojuetoprovethathuman2nis46insteadof48.

40.1957J.D.Robertson[2]usedultrathinsectiontechnologytoobtainclearcellmembranephotos,showingathree-layerstructureofdark-light-darkness.

41.1961BritishP.Mitchellproposedthechemicalpermeationtheoryofmitochondrialoxidativephosphorylationcoupling,andwonthe1978NobelPrizeinChemistry.

42.1961-64AmericanM.W.NirenbergdecipheredtheDNAgeneticcode.

43.1968SwissWernerArberdiscoveredDNArestrictionendonucleasesinbacteria.

44.In1970,AmericansD.Baltimore,R.DulbeccoandH.TemindiscoveredthatthereisareversetranscriptasethatusesRNAasatemplateinRNAtumorvirusestogenerateDNAthroughreversetranscription.Andwonthe1975sharedNobelPrizeinPhysiologyandMedicine.

45.1971AmericansDanielNathansandHamiltonSmithdevelopednucleasedigestiontechnology.

46.1973AmericanS.CohenandH.Boyerspliced​​foreigngenesintoplasmidsandexpressedtheminE.coli,thusunveilingthepreludetogeneticengineering.

47.1975BritishF.SangerdesignedthedideoxymethodforDNAsequencing.WontheNobelPrizeinChemistryin1980.Inaddition,Sangerwonthe1958NobelPrizeinChemistryfordeterminingtheprimarystructureofbovineinsulinin1953.

48.1982AmericanS.B.PrusinerdiscoveredtheproteinfactorPrion,updatedtheconceptofmedicalinfection,andwontheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyandMedicinein1997.

49.In1983,theAmericanKBMullisinventedthePCRmachineandpublished"SpecificsynthesisofDNAinvitroviaapolymerase-catalyzedchainreaction"in1987,whichwonthepromisein1993BellPrizeinChemistry.

50.1984GermanGJFKohler,ArgentineC.Milstein[3]andDanishscientistNKJernedevelopedmonoclonalantibodytechnology,perfectingthedetectionofverysmallamountsofproteinTechnologyandsharedtheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyandMedicine.

51.1989AmericansS.AltmanandT.R.CechsharedtheNobelPrizeinChemistryfordiscoveringthatcertainRNAsfunctionasenzymes(calledribozymes).BishopandVarmussharedtheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyandMedicineforthediscoverythatnormalcellsalsocarryproto-oncogenes.

52.In1997,DollytheSheepwasbornattheLuslinInstituteandbecameamajornewsattheendofthecentury.DollywasclonedbyaresearchteamledbyIanWilmut(Figure1-3).

53.1998AmericansT.WakayamaandR.Yanagimachisuccessfullyreproducedmicewithfreeze-driedsperm.

54.2000Theworld’sfirstclonedpigwasborninScotlandandwasclonedbyaresearchteamledbyAlanColeman.

55.2001AmericanLelandHartwell,BritishPaulNurse,TimothyHuntwontheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyandMedicinefortheirresearchonthemechanismofcellcycleregulation.

56.2002BritishSydneyBrenner,AmericanH.RobertHorvitzandBritishJohnE.Sulston,duetothegeneticregulationoforgandevelopmentandprogrammedcelldeathTheresearchwontheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicine.

57.2003AmericanscientistsPeterAgreandRoderickMacKinnonwontheNobelPrizeinChemistryfortheirresearchonthestructureandmechanismofcellmembranewaterchannelsandionchannels,respectively.

Interdisciplinarity

Cellbiologymakesextensiveuseoftheachievementsofneighboringdisciplinesandlearnsfromothersintermsoftechnicalmethods.Anythingthatcansolveproblemswillbeused.Forexample,molecularbiologymethodsareusedtostudythestructureofgenes,biochemistryandmolecularbiologymethodsareusedtostudyvariousnon-histoneproteinsonchromosomesandtheirregulationandcontrolofgeneactivities,orimmunologicalmethodsareusedtostudythevariousaspectsofthecytoskeleton.Thedistributionofvariousproteins(tubulin,microfilamentprotein,variousmediumfibrin)incellsandchangesinlifeactivities.RecombinantDNAtechnologyderivedfrommoleculargeneticsandhybridomatechnologyderivedfromimmunologytoproducemonoclonalantibodieshavealsobecomepowerfultoolsforcellbiology.Obviously,theproblemsolvedbyamethoddoesnotnecessarilybelongtothedisciplineinwhichthemethodwasoriginallyestablished.Forexample,molecularbiologymethodsareusedtosolvethestructureofnucleosomes.Strictlyspeaking,thisshouldbethecategoryofmorphology.Suchexamplesarenotuncommon,andtheboundariesofdisciplinesarealsoerasedhere.Itmaybesaidthatnucleartransplantation,microinjection,andcellfusionaremethodsdevelopedbycellbiologyitself,butexperimentsconductedwiththesemethodsoftenrequireothermethodsforfurtheranalysis.

Cellbiologyisnotsomuchadisciplineasitisafield.Thiscanbeunderstoodfromtwoaspects:oneisthenatureofitscoreissue-thecombinationofdevelopmentandheredityatthecellularlevel,whichisnotlimitedtothescopeofadiscipline.Thesecondisthatitoverlapswithmanydisciplines,andeventheboundariesareinseparable.Forexample,intermsofresearchmaterials,single-celledprotozoaareboththesimplestanimalsandthemostcomplexcells,becausetheyhavemanyfunctionsinonebody;especiallytheciliatesarenotonlyusefulforstudyingcertainproblems,suchasciliaandThemovementofflagellaisparticularlyadvantageous,andresearchondevelopmentandheredityhasalsoaccumulatedalotofvaluableinformation.Butthistypeofresearchcanalsobeincludedinthecategoryofprotozoology.Secondly,asfarastheresearchproblemisconcerned,immunityisoneoftheimportantfunctionsofcells.Cellularimmunityshouldbelongtothecategoryofcellbiology,butitisalsoabasicproblemofimmunology.

Becauseofthewiderangeofdisciplines,althoughcellbiologyisbroadinscope,itcannotbedividedintosub-disciplineslikesomedisciplines—likecytology,itisdividedintocellmorphologyaccordingtowhichanglethecellisstudiedfrom.Science,cytochemistry,etc.Ifyouwanttodivideitscontentappropriately,youcanfirstdivideitintotwoaspects:oneistostudythestructureandfunctionofthevariouscomponentsofthecell(accordingtothespecificresearchobject),whichshouldbethebasisforfurtherresearch.Listthem,suchasgenomeandgeneexpression,chromatinandchromosomes,variousorganelles,cellsurfacemembranesandmembranesystems,cytoskeleton,extracellularmatrix,andsoon.Secondly,itisdividedaccordingtowhichlifeactivitiesoftheresearchcell,suchascelldivision,growth,movement,excitability,differentiation,aginganddisease,etc.,tostudythechangesofcellsintheseprocesses,andthemechanismsthatproducetheseprocesses.

Ofcourse,thisisonlyanartificialdivision.Theseaspectsarenotisolatedfromeachother,butrelatedtoeachother.Intermsofthevariouscomponentsofthecell,forexample,thesurfacemembraneiscloselyrelatedtotheextracellularmatrix.Thesurfacemembraneisnotsimplyalayerofcytoplasmcoveredwithalayerofcytoplasm,butthroughsomesubtlestructures-oneofthemisknowntobemusclemovement.Proteinmolecules,whichareagainconnectedtothecytoskeleton-closelyconnectedtothecytoplasm.Inthisway,thesurfacemembranecanbecloselyrelatedtotheinsideofthecell.Ontheotherhand,startingfromtheresearchproblem,studyinglifephenomenasuchassplitanddifferentiationcannotbeseparatedfromthefoundationofstructure.Forexample,thestudyofcelldivisioninvolveshowchromatinispackedintochromosomes,thedivisionandmovementofchromosomes,changesinthecytoskeletonincludethepolymerizationanddepolymerizationoftubulin,theformationofdivisiongroovesrelatedtothesurfacemembrane,andtheregulationandregulationofcelldivision.control.Anotherexampleisthestudyofcelldifferentiationandremoval.Itisnecessarytounderstandthechangesintheorganellesofacertaincellduringthedifferentiationprocessandthechangesintheiruniquestructuralproteins.Itisalsonecessarytounderstandthematerialbasisthatleadstodifferentiationandhowthesesubstancesactonthelevelofgeneregulation,leadingtoRelatedgenesareactivated.Itcanbeseenthatalthoughthefocusofresearchcanbedividedartificially,thecellsmustbeviewedasawhole,andthelifeprocessmustbelinkedtothestructureandfunctionofcellcomponents.

CellSociology

Theresearchofcellbiologyisalwayswillingtouseculturedcells.Itsadvantageisthatitcanprovideenoughcellsforbiochemicalanalysis,andthereisonlyonekindofcell,materialItisrelativelysimple,andtheanalysisresultisconvenient.However,thereareshortcomingsincertainaspectsofresearch,becausecellsinanyorganismareinasociety,mixedwithothercellstovaryingdegrees,anditisimpossiblenottobeadjacenttoeachotherintheirlifeactivities.Theinfluenceofothercells,eventheinfluenceofneighboringcellsofthesamekind,ismuchmorecomplicatedthanthatofculturedcells.Therefore,someproblemsareeitherdifficulttocarryoutwithculturedcells,ortheresultsobtainedcanonlypartiallyreflecttheactualsituation.Inordertostudytherelationshipbetweencellsinacellgroup,cellsociologyhasbeenproposed.

Thecontentofcellsociologyisquiteextensive,includingthemutualrecognitionofdifferentcellsorthesamecell,theaggregationandadhesionofcells,thecommunicationandinformationexchangebetweencells,theinteractionbetweencellsandtheextracellularmatrix,andevenItcanalsoincludetheformationoftissuedifferentiationpatternsincellpopulations.Someinformationhasbeenaccumulatedinsomeaspects,anddeliberatelygoingdeeperfromtheperspectiveofcellsociologywillsurelyprovidemoresystematicandusefulinformation.Sincecellsociologyisbasedoncellpopulations,andsomeissuesneedtobeunderstoodindevelopmentalbiology,itislikelythatitwillbecomeabridgebetweencellbiologyanddevelopmentalbiologyasitdevelops.

Lookingforwardtotheresearchofcellbiology,removetheabovework──aboutthestructureandfunctionofeachcellcomponent,andtheunderstandingofvariouslifephenomena──wemustcontinuetogodeeper.Whatisthereason?Genescanbeexpressedinanorderlyandselectivemanner,whichmaybecomeakeyresearchissueinthefuture;inaddition,cellsociologywillalsoreceivemoreandmoreattention.

Bioeconomy

Inthe1950s,peoplestilldidn’tknowhowmanychromosomestheyhad,butin2000,thedraftofthe"HumanGenomeProject"wascompleted,markingtheuseofgeneticresearch.Thepost-genomeera,whichfocusesonfunctions,hasarrived.Subsequently,various"omics"studiessuchasproteomics,RNAomics(RNomics),glycomics,andmetabolomics(metabolomics)haveappearedoneafteranother,aswellasthedevelopmentofcomputationalbiologyandnanobiology,Enteringaperiodofrapiddevelopmentofsystemsbiology,itisforeseeablethatinthenearfuture,biologicalscienceswillbringhumansocietyintoanewstageofdevelopment.

Afteralongcivilizationofhuntingandhunting,mankindenteredtheeraofagriculturaleconomyabout10,000yearsago.Inthe1860s,Britaintooktheleadinenteringtheindustrialeconomy,andtheUnitedStateswasthefirsttocompletethecourseofindustrialeconomyinthe1950s.,Entertheinformationage.Expertsestimatethatthe"lifespan"ofthiseconomicformis75to80years,anditwillgraduallyloseitsvitalitybythe1920s.Atthattime,humanbeingswillwelcomethenexteconomicera,thatis,thearrivalofthebioeconomyera.Theresourcesofbioeconomyaregenes.Thecoretechnologiesarevarioustypesofbiotechnologybasedonthetheoriesofcellandmolecularbiology.

Characteristicsofthetimes

1.Promotetheindustrialrevolutionandcreateneweconomicgrowthpoints.Theproportionofthebiologicalindustrywillgraduallyincrease.15%ofthemedicinesarebasedonbiotechnology.Thisfigureisestimatedtoincreaseto40%by2010.Biochipshavebeenwidelyusedinscientificresearch,medicaltreatment,agriculture,food,environmentalprotection,judicialauthenticationandotherfields,andwillbecomeanindustryasimportantasmicroelectronicchips.Themarketprospectofgeneticallymodifiedanimalsandplantsisbroad.In2004,theglobalplantingareaof​​geneticallymodifiedcropsreached81millionhectares.

Second,promotethemedicalrevolutionandextendhumanlife.Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,theaveragelifeexpectancyofhumanswasabout40yearsold.Theapplicationofantibioticsandvaccines,theimprovementofmedicaltechnologyandtheconceptofpublichealthhavefreedhumanbeingsfromthethreatofinfectiousdiseases.Over70yearsold.However,cardiovasculardisease,cancerandvariousgeneticdiseasesorgeneticrelateddiseasesarestillthemainculpritsthatthreatenhumanhealth.Inthe21stcentury,biotechnologywillpromoteanewroundofmedicalrevolution,extendinghumanlifespanintermsofdiseaseprevention,diseasediagnosis,drugdevelopment,tissueengineering,genetherapy,organtransplantation,andanti-aging.In1990,theNationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH)conductedtheworld'sfirstgenetherapy,givinga4-year-oldgirlwithcongenitalseverecombinedimmunodeficiencydisease.Thisdiseaseiscausedbythelackofthenormaladenosinedeaminase(ADA)gene.TheexpertsusedthevirusasacarriertointroducetheADAgeneintolymphocytesisolatedfromthepatient’sblood,culturedinvitroandtheninfusedbackintothepatient’sbody,whichincreasedtheADAenzymecontentinthegirl’sbodyandrecoveredtheimmunefunction.Normalactivitieswithoutsideeffects.Thisistheworld'sfirstsuccessfulpatientwithgenetherapy.Afterthat,genetherapyhasbecomeanupsurgeintheworld.

3.Promotethegreenrevolutionandsolvethefoodcrisis.Sincethe1960s,thecultivationofhigh-qualityvarietiesofcropssuchashybridcorn,hybridwheat,andhybridricehasmarkedthepeakoftheapplicationoftraditionalplantbreedingtheoriesandvariousagriculturalmeasuresincropimprovement,andhashadaprofoundimpactonagriculture.Knownasthefirstgreenrevolution.Inthe21stcentury,aseriesofnewtechnologiessuchasgeneticallymodifiedanimalsandplants,tissueculture,embryotransfer,andanimalcloningwillonceagainchangethefaceofagriculture.Thenewtechnologyclusterwillbemoreconducivetothecreationofnewvarietiesandtheproductionoffoodandmedicinesurgentlyneededbyhumans.Andindustrialsuppliestopromotethesecondgreenrevolution.

Fourth,createnewbiologicalspeciesandimprovetheecologicalenvironment.Thediscoveryandapplicationofplantdrought-resistantandsalt-tolerantgenesmaycompletelychangetheecologicalenvironmentof1billionmuofaridareas,turning500millionmuofbarrenlandandsaline-alkalilandintofertileland.Theapplicationofgeneticallyengineeredextremophilesforthetreatmentofwastegas,wastewater,andwasteresidues,andtheindustrialpromotionofdegradablebioplasticproducts,willsolveenvironmentalproblemssuchasindustrialemissionsandwhitewaste,andeffectivelyimprovetheecologicalenvironment.

Fifth,developgreenenergytosolvetheenergycrisis.Theexhaustionoffossilenergysuchascoalandpetroleumisjustaroundthecorner,andthedevelopmentofalternativeenergysourcesisofveryimportantstrategicsignificance.Theglobalreservesofbiomassenergyare1.800billiontons,whichisequivalentto64billiontonsofoil.Bioenergywillturnwasteorganicmattersuchascropstrawintoenergy,alleviatethecrisisofinsufficientfossilenergy,andfindamoreeconomicalwayforcountrieswithoilshortagestosolvetheenergycrisis.Theuseof"greengold"insteadof"blackgold"andthedevelopmentofbioethanol,biodiesel,biopowergeneration,biohydrogenandotheralternativefossilenergysourceshavebecometheenergystrategyofmanycountries.Inaddition,majorbreakthroughshavebeenmadeintheresearchofplantphotosynthesismechanism,andthehydrogenproducedbyartificialphotolysisofwaterwillbecomethemainenergysourceafterfossilfuels.

Six.Biosecurityisrelatedtonationalsecurity.Itmustberecognizedthatbiotechnologyisadouble-edgedsword.Bioengineeringweaponswillcompletelychangethemethodsandconsequencesoftraditionalwarfare.Withouttheabilitytodefendandrespondtobiologicalwarfareagents,bioterrorism,andinvasivealienspecies,thecountrycannotbefundamentallyprotected.Safety.

Seven,itisanimpactontraditionalethicalconcepts.Theapplicationofgeneticallymodifiedanimalsandplants,animalcloning,embryonicstemcells,tissueengineering,andorgantransplantationtechnologieswillhaveastrongimpactontraditionalhumanethics.

Itisforeseeablethatinthefutureera,cellbiologywillstillbetheleadingsubjectoflifesciencesandthebasicsciencesupportingthedevelopmentofbiotechnology.Althoughithasbeenmorethan300yearssincethediscoveryofcells,humanshavenotobtainedacompleteandclearunderstandingoftheworkingmechanismofcellsattheoveralllevel(even"simple"bacteria).Thediscoveriesofcellbiologyinthefollowingareaswillbringnewdevelopmentmomentumtobiotechnology.①Theunderstandingofthecontrolmechanismofstemcellgrowthanddifferentiationmayleadtomajorbreakthroughsintherapeuticapplications;②Theunderstandingoftheregulationmechanismofgeneticgenesandbiochemicalpathwayswillleadtomoreadvancedgeneticmodificationmethods;③TheunderstandingofthemechanismofcellperceptionoftheenvironmentwillbeContributetotheresearchanddevelopmentofbiosensorswithbroadapplicationprospects;④Understandingthecooperativeworkingmechanismofcytoskeletonandmolecularmotorswilllikelyleadthebiologicalapplicationofnanotechnologyinthesecondhalfofthecentury.

Developmentprospects

1.Effectivelysolvetheworld'sproblemsinthetreatmentoftoday'smajoranddifficultdiseases:ThecurrentembryonictissuestemcelltechnologyhasbeendevelopedsothataslongastheDNAofanylivingcellinthepatient'sbodyisobtained,itispossibletocultivateorgansofanypartofthebodyexceptthebrain(Science:Skin,nailsandothertissuesarealsoakindoforgans),soastoachieverealorganregenerationinmedicine.

2.Promoteanepoch-makingrevolutionintheinformationindustryandcertainspecialindustriessuchascomputermanufacturing;aworldyouhaveneverthoughtof:1.Today’scomputersplayapivotalroleinhumanlife.People’sdailywork,study,andproduction,Life,includingscientificresearch,aerospace,andotherhigh-endindustriesrelyoncomputers.Thebasicmodelsoftoday'scomputersaretheVonandNeumannmodels,andmostofthemanufacturingmaterialsaremetalmaterials.Essentially,fromthefirstdayofthebirthofthecomputertothepresent,itsoperatingmodehasnotundergoneanysubstantialchanges.Thedevelopmentofbiologycancompletelysolvethisprobleminthefuture,usingbiomaterialstocreatesupercomputersthatoperateinamodesimilartotheoperationofthehumanbrain,allowingcomputerstothinkandworklikehumans,realizingaleapinoperatingprinciplesinatruesense.2.Copyingahandorfootofyourownischeap,andyoucan"change"yourhands,feetorevenyourheartatanytime,sothatyourlifespancanbeextendedto200-300yearsormore.Canyouimaginewhatchangescanhappentothesocialstructureandpeople’ssocialconsciousness?

3.Theeconomicstructurehaschanged:steelisnolongeraniconicproductinheavyindustry.Housesmadeofhard"bones",highlybioniccars,airplanes,etc.Areturntoinnocenceiswaitingforyou.

4.Thedevelopmentofbiotechnologyhasactuallysurpassedyourimagination,butaccordingtotheagreementinthe"InternationalUNESCONo.45Agreement",aseriesofrelevantissuescausedbyhugedifferencesinnationalities,cultures,andlifetraditionsbetweencountriesarediscussedandresolved.Manyachievedresultsandproductscannotenterourreallives.Thisisalsothemostcriticalfactorrestrictingthedevelopmentandapplicationofbiotechnology.