šíření - techintroduce

Základní pojmy

Základní informace

Titles:Communication

Pinyin：Chuánbō

Meaning:TransmissionandDissemination

Vysvětlení významu

1 [přenést]

2.Přenos nebo šíření

Šíření znalostí

3. Nákaza

Onemocnění přemožené vši

4 [šířit]: Rozšířené

Librariansandpublishersresponsiblefordisseminationofbooks

5 [vysílání]: Dát to na vědomí široké veřejnosti

Disseminationofinformationaboutthelatestscientificinventions

Příklady pro vysvětlení

1.Široce rozšířené.

"NorthernHistory·TurkicBiography":"Itissuitabletospreadtheworld,andthesaltywillmakeknowledgeandnews."Onearticlehasalreadybeenwritten,andthosewhodogoodthingsoftentrytospreadchanting."

MingFengMenglong’s"EasternZhouKingdoms"Chapter46:"Thepalacepeopleheardthewordsandspreadthemabroad.Commercialofficialshesitatedanddidnotbelievethem.,ToinformtheTaiFuPanChong."

„Suiyuan Poetry Talk“ od QingYuanMei, svazek 14: „Jeden inkoustový kámen a jeden řez, mistrovská kniha kreslí, šíří umělecký les.“

DingLing's"AnUnloadedBullet":"Novinky se okamžitě šíří."

2 "šíření" v čínštině

"šíření""je slovo se společnou strukturou v čínštině, mezi nimiž "vysílání" většinou odkazuje na "šíření" a "vysílání" má různé dynamické významy, jako je "doručovat, odesílat, doručovat, přepravovat, dávat a vyjadřovat". spreadingpollen...(Zdroj:KangYongshengshi)

3. Komunikace v angličtině

"Komunikace""je přeloženo z angličtinykomunikace.V angličtině to znamená.Původní význam zahrnuje"komunikaci,oznámení,informace,dopis;předat,učit,šířit,nákazu;dopravu,kontakt;běžný,sdílený"adalší významy.

4.Definice"komunikace"komunikační věda

Accordingtoresearch,theUNESCOpublishedinLondononNovember16,1945Inthe(UNESCO)charter,itwasoncestatedthat“touseallmeansofmasscommunicationtoenhancemutualunderstandingamongnations.”Theterm“masscommunication”initwastranslatedas“masscommunication”(referringtonewspapers,radio,etc.)IntermsofmediasuchastelevisionandtheInternet,thesemediaarealsocollectivelyreferredtoas"massmedia",ormassmediaforshort).

Definice obsahu

Zahraniční definice

1Cooley(sociologicalperspective):Communicationreferstothemechanismbywhichtherelationshipbetweenpeopleisestablishedanddeveloped——Includingallspiritualsymbolsandtheirmeanstobetransmittedinspaceandpreservedintime.Itincludesexpressions,attitudes,actions,tones,language,articles,printedmatter,railways,telegraphs,telephones,andanyotherlatesteffectsofhumansconqueringspaceandtime.

2Peirce(semioticorsemanticperspective):Communicationistheprocessofpassingideasormeaning(spiritualcontent).

3Schram:Existují alespoň tři prvky komunikace – zdroj, zpráva a cíl.

4God's"sharingtheory":Communicationistheprocessofturninguniqueintocommon.

5Gerberner’s"InteractionTheory":Communicationcanbedefinedassocialinteractionthroughinformation.

6Berelsonův a Sennův „symbolismus“: používání symbolů – slov, obrázků, čísel, diagramů atd. k přenosu informací, myšlenek, pocitů, technologie atd. Proces aktéra takového přenosu se obvykle nazývá přenos.

7Hoflandova "teorie účelu, vlivu a odezvy": Komunikace je proces, kterým jedna osoba (komunikátor) předává podněty (obvykle verbální), aby ovlivnila chování ostatních lidí (příjemce).

8Ayer:Communicationreferstothetransmissionofinformationinabroadsense.Itnotonlyincludescontactwithnews,butalsoexpressesfeelings,expectations,commands,wishesoranythingelse.

Domácí definice

1GuoQingguang:Thetransmissionofsocialinformationortheoperationofsocialinformationsystems.

2ShaoPeiren:Communicationisanactivityinwhichhumansexchangeinformationthroughsymbolsandmediainordertochangeaccordingly.

3HuZhengrong:Communicationistheprocessofinformationflow.Communicationconsistsoftwoelements-information(thematerialtobetransmitted)andflow.

4ZhangGuoliang: Šíření je akt (nebo proces) předávání informací.

Přenosové prostředky

Vysvětlení přenosu

ThetransmissionistranslatedfromEnglishCommunication,fromLatinCommunication(community).TheChinesemeaningofthewordcanhavemorethanadozeninterpretations,suchas:communication,exchange,transportation,communication,communication,etc.Theso-calleddisseminationreferstothetransmissionofsocialinformationortheoperationofsocialinformationsystems.

Therearemanykindsofdefinitionsofcommunication.Accordingtosomestatistics,thereareasmanyas126kinds.Theyhavetheirownfocuses:

Emphasizethatcommunicationisthesharingofinformation;emphasizethatcommunicationisintentionalExertinfluence;emphasizethatcommunicationistheinteractiveprocessofinformationexchange;emphasizethatcommunicationistheoperationofsocialinformationsystems;emphasizethatcommunicationistheembodimentofsocialrelations.However,nomatterfromwhichanglethecommunicationisdefined,itsbasicmeaningisto"buildacommonconsciousnesswithothers."ThiscanalsobeseenfromEnglishwordssimilarto"communication":

Komunikacekomunikace, výměna, komunikace, šíření;

Šíření šíření, šíření, publicita;

Přenos přenos, přenos, vysílání;

Rozšířený přenos, přenos, publicita;

Propaganda (politika, politické strany) publicita a přenos.

Communication:Ithasabroadermeaning,suchascommunication,communication,communication,communication,communication,etc.Thebasicmeaningis"tobuildacommonawarenesswiththem."Incommunication,itisdefinedas:communicationisthebehaviorandactivityofhumaninformationexchangewithsocialandcommoncharacteristics.

Charakteristika veřejné komunikace: obousměrná, sdílená, rychlá a náročná.

Ústavy

Jeden ze základních prvků: zdroj, jímka, informace, médium, kanál, zpětná vazba.

Thesecondisthehiddenelements:timeandspaceenvironment,psychologicalfactors,culturalbackgroundandinformationquality.

Množení rostlin

Dispersalpropagace

(1)referstothespreadofplantswithvariousstructuresontheirbodiestoexpandthelivingrangeofthenextgeneration.Therearemanywaysofpropagation,suchaswindpropagation(anemochory)ofwillowandmapletrees,waterpropagation(hydrochory)ofcoconuts,etc.,propagationofoakandothersbyfruitdropandsliding(clitochory),andcultivationofplantsrelyonhumanmedia.Thespread(brotochory),lilylily,woodsorrel,andascosporesofwhitesclerotiaarespreadbytheruptureofthepeelandascus(bo-lochory).However,thespreadinganddispersalofthegenusPseudomonasisdifferentfromthis.(TranslatedbyEYongchang)

(2)Thephenomenonthatacertainmodeofactionisspreadfromsomemembersoftheclustertoothermembers.Thisisduetolearning,andismostlyadaptivebehavior.Usually,youngindividualswithstrongplasticitystartnewbehaviorsandgraduallyspreadtoolderindividuals.

Šíření významu

1.Thewaypeoplecareforeachotherandsharetheworld:thecompositionofmeaningandemotion.

2. Cesta k ověření: souřadnice přežití, dopravní značky.

spread

3.Způsob sociálního přizpůsobení: pozorování, sledování, rozhodování a záruka sociálního provozu.

Způsoby komunikace

Přesná komunikace

Přesná komunikaceisbasedonafullunderstandingoftheaudience’sinformationandtargetingspecificgroupsofpeople’spreferences.Oneformofcommunication.

Přesná komunikaceoftenconsistsofacombinationofdirectmarketing,databasemarketingandothermethods.Thepremiseistomasteraccuratemarketinginformation,accuratetargetaudienceinformation,andeffectivemarketmethods.

komunikace

Definice

komunikaceisthestudyofallhumancommunicationbehaviorsandthelawoftheoccurrenceanddevelopmentofthecommunicationprocess,aswellastherelationshipbetweencommunicationandpeopleandsociety..Inshort,communicationisadisciplinethatstudieshowhumansusesymbolstocommunicatesocialinformation.komunikacetudiesarealsocalledcommunicationstudiesandcommunicationstudies.Communicationistheproductofinterdisciplinaryresearchsincethe1930s.komunikacetudiesarecloselyrelatedtoothersocialsciencedisciplinesandareattheedgeofmultipledisciplines.Sincecommunicationisabasicsocialfunctionofpeople,anysciencethatstudiestherelationshipbetweenpeople,suchaspolitics,economics,anthropology,sociology,psychology,philosophy,linguistics,semantics,andneurologyAndsoon,areallrelatedtocommunication.Itusesthetheoreticalviewpointsandresearchmethodsofsociology,psychology,politicalscience,journalism,anthropologyandmanyotherdisciplinestostudytheessenceandconceptofcommunication;theinterconnectionandrestrictionofthebasicelementsinthecommunicationprocess;thegenerationandacquisitionofinformation,Processingandtransmission,efficiencyandfeedback,theinteractionbetweeninformationandobjects;theformationofvarioussymbolsystemsandtheirfunctionsincommunication;thefunctionsandstatusofvariouscommunicationmedia;communicationsystems,structures,andsocialsystemsinvariousfieldsRelationshipandsoon.

Inaddition,communicationsciencealsodrawsoninformationtheory,cybernetics,andsystemtheoryinnaturalsciences.Therefore,peoplecallitmarginalscience,whichmeansitisatthecrossroadsofmultipledisciplines.Thetheoriesofvarioussocialdisciplinesoftenbecomepartofthetheoryofcommunication.However,communicationhasitsowntheory,whichcannotbereplacedbyothersocialsciences.

Thefocusandfootholdofcommunicationstudiesare:howtoestablishacertainrelationshipbetweenpeoplethroughtheroleofcommunication.

Itsresearchscopemainlyincludes:interpersonalcommunicationandmasscommunication.Amongthem,masscommunicationisthemainfocus.

Thestudyofcommunicationisactuallythestudyofpeople:studyingtherelationshipbetweenpeopleandothergroups,organizations,andsociety;studyinghowpeopleareaffectedandhowtheyareaffectedbyeachother;studyinghowpeoplereportnewsandhowAcceptnewsandintellectualevidence,howtobetaughtfromothers,howtohavefunandentertainment.Firstunderstandhowpeoplebuildrelationshipswithpeople.

Související obory

Theconstructionofthecommunicationresearchsystemcanfirstfindthebasisandcoordinatesfromitsrelationshipwithotherrelateddisciplines.Becauseitsconstructionisinseparablefromthenurturingandpromotionofmanyrelateddisciplines.

1.Komunikace a sociologie

IntheWest,peopleonceregardedcommunicationasabranchofsociology.Weknow:Sociologytakessocialorganization,socialbehavior,socialissues,etc.astheresearchobjects,andhasawiderange;whilecommunicationstudiesfocusesonthecommunicationprocess,communicationbehavior,communicationawarenessandcommunicationrelationsandotherphenomena,andtheobjectsaremoreconcentrated.Sociologywasbornbefore,andcommunicationwasbornafter.Initsformation,communicationstudieshaveabsorbedandborrowedsomeknowledgeandmethodsofsociology(suchassurveymethodsandstatisticalmethods),butitalsodrewnourishmentfrommanyotheremergingdisciplines.Nowadays,sociologyandotherdisciplinesarealsobeginningtousetheresultsofcommunicationtoenrichtheirresearchcontent.Thiskindofpartialoverlap,crossover,andmutualreferenceofresearchresultsiscompletelynormalandshouldbe,butafterall,theyareindependentdisciplineswiththeirowncharacteristics.

2.Komunikace a psychologie

Intheformationofcommunicationstudies,psychologyhashelped.Psychology,asthestudyofthelawsofmentalactivity,enrichesandenrichesthecontentofcommunicationresearchbydiggingouttheinternalmotivationandemotionalfactorsoftheoccurrenceofcommunicationphenomena,sothatthecommunicationsciencethatfocusesonmacroscopicresearchandprocessresearchcanstudyfromthemicroscopicandpsychologicalaspects.Theresearchhaslearnedfromeachother'sstrengthsandismoredynamic.Asasocialactivitywiththerichesthumanityandaffection,communicationalsoaddsnewresearchcontentanddiscoursespacetopsychologyresearch.Incommunicationactivities,thepsychologicalphenomenaandactivitiesofcommunicators,gatekeepers,intermediariesandaudiences,Isalsowhatpeoplewanttounderstand,whichalsomakespsychologyresearchmorerealisticandpractical.Thesimilaritybetweenthetwoliesinthespreadofpsychology.

3.Komunikace a antropologie

komunikaceandanthropologyareboth"sciencesabouthumans",bothofwhichaimtodescribeandexplainthespecialhumanbeingsthatspantheentireearthAndnaturalandsocialphenomenathroughouthistory.However,thesubjectofanthropologyistostudyallaspectsofthehumanbodyandculture,andthesubjectofcommunicationistostudythebasicmediumofhumancommunicationbehaviorandculturaltransmissionfromgenerationtogeneration.Inthepast,peoplepaidtoomuchattentiontothedifferencesbetweenthetwodisciplines,andseldompaidattentiontotheinteractionandcomplementarityofthetwodisciplines.Communicationistheprivilegeandsymbolofmankind,thecarrierofcultureand"socialcement",andtheboosterofhumancivilizationandsocialprogress.Thetheoriesofthelinguisticschool,culturalschool,andcommunicationschoolinanthropologycangivecommunicationscholarsalotofenlightenment,whilethesemiotictheory,receptiontheory,andfunctionaltheoryincommunicationcanalsoopentheeyesofanthropologists.Inshort,wemustnotonlyunderstandthedifferencebetweencommunicationandanthropology,butalsotrytofindthepointofconvergencebetweenthetwo,sothatwecanscientificallyexplainandrevealthephenomenaandlawsofhumancommunication.

4.Komunikace a propaganda

Thereisacertain"bloodrelationship"betweencommunicationandpropaganda.Becausealargepartofearlycommunicationresearchispropagandaresearch.However,thedifferencebetweenthetwoisalsoobviousandcannotbeconfused.komunikacetudiesallinformationdisseminationphenomenainhumansocietyasitsownresearchobjects,whichnaturallyalsoincludespropagandaphenomena;whilepropagandastudiesonlyregardpersuasiveandconceptualcommunicationphenomenaasitsownresearchobjects.Communicationcanrevealthenatureandlawsofgeneralinformationdisseminationfromahigherlevelandabroaderperspective,sothatitcanmoreaccuratelyguideallcommunicationactivities,includingpropagandaactivities;andpropagandacanonlydealwithitfromitsownperspective.Analyzethepropagandaphenomenonandrevealthelawsofpropagandaatthelevel,andthenguideone'sowncommunicationactivities,andcanonlydeepenandenrichthecontentofcommunicationfromcertainaspects,butcannotsimplybeusedtoguidegeneralcommunicationactivities.Thelatecomercommunicationstudieshasbecomethe"commander"ofvariousbranchesofcommunicationdisciplines,andpropagandatheoryisafteralljustabranchofcommunicationdisciplines.

5.Komunikace a žurnalistika

Inthecourseoftheirevolution,communicationandjournalismhavehadaverycloseinteractiverelationship,andjournalismhasindeedcontributedtothebirthofcommunicationIthasplayedaroleininducinglabor,butthetwocannotbeequated.Itisgenerallybelievedthatjournalismisaproductofthenewspapernewsera,focusingonbusinessresearchor"technical"research;communicationisaproductoftheelectronicnewsera,focusingontheoreticalresearchor"learning"research.Journalismisbasedontheancient"Journalism"research,focusingonmicro-research,partialresearchandone-wayresearch;Communicationisbasedontheknowledgeofemergingdisciplines,focusingonmacro-research,overallresearchandtwo-wayresearch.Theresearchobjectofjournalismisthephenomenonofnewsinformation;theresearchobjectofcommunicationisthephenomenonofcommunicationactivities.Journalismisaspecificscientificresearch,whichcanprovidematerialsandenrichthecontentofcommunicationresearch;Communicationisageneralscientificresearch,whichhastheroleofstandardizingandguidingthecontentandmethodsofjournalismresearch.Somepeoplealsothinkthatjournalismisakindofprofessionalresearch,andcommunicationisakindofsocialresearch.Inshort,bothhavetheirowncharacteristics.

6.Komunikace a historie

Asthehistoryofresearchandclarificationofthedevelopmentprocessofhumansociety,itcanhelpcommunicationstudiestostudythepastcommunicationactivitiesandexploretheoccurrenceofcommunicationphenomenaThesequenceandhistoricalfactorsrevealthehistoricalprocessandbasiclawsofmediatransformation,sothatcommunicationcan"discussfromhistory"andenablecommunicatorsto"learnfromhistory",gainhistoricalknowledge,historicalwisdomandhistoricalexperience,andimproveSpreadtheeffect.Asacommunicationstudyaimedatpursuingandenhancinghumancommunicationwisdom,itcanalsoallowhistorianstoseetheroleof"socialcement"and"interpersonallubrication"inthedevelopmentofhumansociety,aswellasinpolitics,religion,andTheleadingroleinhistoricalactivitiessuchaseducation,literature,andart,andtheninthe"historicalview"willfind:spreadingisnotonlyabuildingmaterialofhumannature,butalsoabuildingmaterialofhistory;allhumanhistoryrelatedtospiritualactivitiesorspiritualculture,Infact,itisthehistoryofcommunication.Historyisastaticintrovertedstudythatservesrealitybypayingattentiontoandanalyzingpasthistoricalfacts;Communicationisadynamicoutgoingresearchthatservesrealitybypayingattentiontoandanalyzingthephenomenonofcommunicationactivitiesthatareoccurring.

Inaddition,communicationstudiesoftenusesemiotics,semanticlanguage,informatics,receptionstudiesandotherrelateddisciplinesorresearchresultsonsimilartopicstocontinuouslyenrichandimproveitsownresearchcontentandresearchsystem.

Itcanbeseenthattherearemanydisciplines,especiallyemergingdisciplines,supportingit,enrichingit,andcontinuouslydeliveringfreshnourishmenttoit.Thiscreatesconditionsforcommunicationstudiestobeall-encompassingandintegrated,anditalsoprovidescommunicationstudieswithanimportantframeofreferencefordeterminingobjects,buildingsystems,andclarifyingcoordinates.

Zakladatel

komunikacewasbornintheUnitedStates.Americanscholarshaveexploredcommunicationtheoriesfromdifferentanglesandproposedawiderangeofcommunicationmodes,suchastext,graphics,andmathematicalformulas.Andothermodesofexpression.komunikacecientistsusedifferentmodelstoexplainthemechanismofinformationdissemination,thenatureofdissemination,promptthedisseminationprocessanddisseminationeffects,andpredictthesituationandstructureoffuturedissemination.Itisgenerallybelievedthattherearefivefoundersofcommunicationstudies:

1.HaroldDwightLasswell,Lasswell(1902-1980)isoneofthefoundersofmodernpoliticalscienceintheUnitedStates.Proposedthefamous5wmodeofcommunication.

2,KurtLewin,LuYin(1890—1947)Němečtí Židé.Prosazují koncept „vrátného“ v šíření informací.

3,CarlHovland,Hovland(1921-1961)ProfessorofExperimentalPsychologyatYaleUniversity.Theexperimentalmethodsofpsychologyareintroducedintothefieldofcommunication,andtheconditionsandcomplexityoftheformationofcommunicationeffectsarerevealed.

4.PaulF.Lazarsfeld,Lazarsfeld(1901-1976)AustrianJews.RogerspointedoutthatLazarsfieldhasledcommunicationstudiestothedirectionofempiricalresearchmorethananyoneelse.

5.WilburSchramm,Schramm(1907-1988)American,establishedtheworld'sfirstinstituteofcommunicationstudies,andeditedthefirstbatchofGermancommunicationtextbooks.Severalnewresearchfieldshavebeenopenedup,suchastheinfluenceoftelevisiononchildren.Heisconsideredtobeamaster.

ThereasonwhyitoriginatedintheUnitedStatesisthatinthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,Eurasiasufferedthescourgeoftwoworldwarsinsuccession,andtheUnitedStateshasbecomeasafehavenformanyscientistsduetoitsuniquegeographicaladvantages.Moreover,becausetheUnitedStatesitselfhasnotbeendamaged,theinventionandapplicationoftechnologyhasalwaysbeeninaleadingposition.Forexample:theopeningofPittsburghRadioTelevisionin1920,theestablishmentoftheNationalBroadcastingCorporationNBCin1926,andsoon.

Fromtheperspectiveofsocialconditions,Americanpoliticsandsociallifehaveatraditionofattachinggreatimportancetothemassmedia.Inthepoliticalmechanism,themassmediaisoneoftheforcesthatcheckandbalancewithlegislaturesandgovernmentagencies.NewspapershaveKnownastheSecondCongress.

Fromtheperspectiveofacademictraditions,Americanpragmatismphilosophyprevails,andacademicresearchplacesspecialemphasisonsolvingpracticalproblems.Alargeamountofpracticalinformationisusedbypeople,whichfacilitatespeople'slife,workandtheoperationofsociety.Buttherearealsoalargenumberofculturalwastessuchascommercialpromotion,politicalpropaganda,deception,pornography,andviolence.TheseproblemsorpotentialproblemshavebecomesubjectsthattheAmericanacademiccommunitymustfaceandstudy.

TheaboveconditionsalldeterminethatcommunicationstudiesoriginatedintheUnitedStates.

AftertheadventofcommunicationintheUnitedStates,itsoonspreadtoWesternEuropeandJapan.komunikacetudiesintheUnitedKingdomhaveflourishedsincethe1960s.Themethodologycanbedividedintofourschools:thesociologyschoolledbyMcGuire;thesocialpsychologycardrepresentedbyHolloren;andtheChessmanandThepoliticaleconomycardrepresentedbyGarnham;thefunctionalschoolrepresentedbytheTelevisionResearchCenteroftheUniversityofLeeds.JapanesecommunicationstudiesbeganaftertheSecondWorldWar.Therearetwomajorcharacteristics:oneistofollowthetheoreticalsystemofforeigncountries,mainlytheUnitedStates,andtofocusonthedevelopmentofsocialparticipationtheorythatemphasizestherightofaudiencestodirectlyparticipateinthecommunicationprocess;thesecondispracticeTakeprecedenceovertheory.Sincethe1960s,theSovietUnionbegantoattachimportancetothestudyofcommunicationtheory.Sovietscholarsrespectivelyproposedtheirowncommunicationmodesbasedontheirownresearch.ThemorefamousonesaretheFilsovcommunicationmodeandtheAlekseyevcommunicationmode.

ItshouldbenotedthatWesterncommunicationscholarshaveobviouslimitationsintheirresearch.Forexample,theyinappropriatelybroadcasttransmissiontothefirstimportantpositionofhumanbeings,therebyexcludingthemainsymbolofhumanproductivity;theyattributetheoccurrenceanddevelopmentofcommunicationbehaviortohumaninstinctandscienceandtechnology,respectively.Itdoesnotlinkthemtothesocialproductionmethodsforinvestigation;whenstudyingthesocialcontrolofthecommunicationbusiness,theyoftenfailtothoroughlyrevealtheprofoundcontradictionswithinthesociety,andsoon.

Klasická interpretace

Thecompositionofasubjecthasthreeaspects:historicaltheoryandapplication.Communicationisacross-disciplinedevelopedfromtheUnitedStatesinthe1920sand1930s,anditsmainresearchobjectistheinformationdisseminationofhumansociety.Affectedbytheglobaltrendofinformationdissemination,communicationhasbecomeoneofthefastest-growingdisciplinesintheworld.FromalargenumberoforiginalEnglishworksofcommunicationstudiesinforeignlibraries,theauthorselected10classicworksrespectedbytheacademiccircle,withoutpresumption,comprehensivelyinterpretingtheresultsofpreviousstudies,andrecommendingthemtoChinesereaders.

Lippmanisoneofthemostinfluentialscholarsinthehistoryofcommunication,andenjoysahighreputationinpropagandaanalysisandpublicopinionresearch.Themostfamouspoliticalcolumnistintheworld,inhis1922book"PublicOpinion",pioneeredtheearlyideastodaycalledagendasetting.Thisbookisrecognizedasafoundationalworkinthefieldofcommunication.

Asaclassicworkoncommunication,thisbookprovidesapanoramicdescriptionofpublicopinionforthefirsttime,allowingreaderstoexperiencetheinternalandexternalconnectionsofpublicopinionindetail.Sinceitspublicationin1922,thisbookhasbeentranslatedintodozensoflanguagesindecades,anditstillmaintainsanauthoritativepositioninthisfield.

ThesecretoftheenduringinfluenceofLippmann's"PublicOpinion"isthatthebookhaseffectivelysortedoutaseriesofunavoidableproblemsinpublicopinionresearch,suchaswhereandhowpublicopinioncomesfrom.Forming?Whatkindofresultscanitcause?Whoisthepublicandwhatkindofpublic?Whatdoespublicopinionmean?Isitonlyspreadamongthepublicorisitformedbythepublicthemselves?Isitorwhenwillitbecomeanindependentforce?

Inmodernsociety,publicopinionismainlyregardedasapoliticalphenomenon.Itcanbesaidthattherehaveonlybeentwosources,namely,anopenpublicopiniongenerationandcirculationsystemandaclosedpublicopinionproductionandindoctrinationsystem.Theyallproduceapublicopinionprocessofsimilarcomplexity,buttheresultsarenotthesame.Lippmann’s"PublicOpinion"hasmadeincisiveandin-depthdiscussionsonissuessuchasstereotypes,interest,theformationofpublicwill,andtheimageofdemocracy.Ithascompletedthefirstcomprehensivereviewofthespreadofpublicopinioninthehistoryofnews,andisagreatopportunityforfuturegenerations.Theresearchlaidthefoundation.

Lippmanhaslongnoticedthehugeimpactofmasscommunicationonsociety.Therefore,inworkssuchas"PublicOpinion"and"FreedomandNews",itisnotonlyaboutthenatureofnewsanditsselectionprocessAdeepanalysiswascarriedoutandtwoimportantconceptswereputforward,oneis"pseudoenvironment";theotheris"stereotype".Lipmanbelievesthatmodernsocietyisbecominglargerandmorecomplex.Duetothelimitedscope,energyandattentionofactualactivities,itisimpossibleforpeopletomaintainempiricalcontactwiththeentireexternalenvironmentandmanythingsrelatedtothem.Forthingsbeyondtheirownpersonalperception,peoplecanonlyunderstandcognitionthroughvarious"newssupplyagencies".Inthisway,humanbehaviorisnolongeraresponsetotheobjectiveenvironmentanditschanges,butaresponsetoacertain"mimeenvironment"promptedbynewsorganizations.

Theso-called"mimeenvironment"isnota"mirror"representationoftherealenvironment,butanenvironmentthatthemediaremindspeopleafterselectingandprocessingsymboliceventsorinformation,andrestructuringthem.However,becausethiskindofprocessing,selection,andstructuringactivitiesarecarriedoutinplacesthatareinvisibletoordinarypeople(insidethemedia),peopleusuallydonotrealizethis,andoftentreatthe"mimeenvironment"astheobjectiveenvironmentitself.

And"stereotype"referstopeople'sfixedandsimplisticideasandimpressionsofaparticularthing,whichisusuallyaccompaniedbyevaluationofthevalueofthethingandfeelingsoflikesanddislikes.Stereotypescanprovideasimplereferencestandardforpeopletounderstandthings,buttheyalsohindertheacceptanceofnewthings.Individualshavepersonalstereotypes,andasocietyalsohasstereotypesthatarewidelyacceptedandprevailingbyitsmembersofsociety,soitalsoplaysacontrollingroleinsociety.Lipmanparticularlyemphasizesthepowerofmasscommunication,andbelievesthatmasscommunicationisnotonlythemaincreatorofthe"mimeenvironment",butalsohasastronginfluenceinforming,maintainingandchangingthestereotypesofasociety.

Inaddition,theresearchonagendasettingalsobeganinLippman’s"PublicOpinion".Althoughthetermagendasettingisnotusedinthebook,heexpressedthebasicidea:mediacreationInadditiontothesymbolicimaginationsinourminds,theseimaginationsmaybecompletelydifferentfromthe"outer"worldweexperience.Hearguedthatmassmediaisthemainlinkbetweenaneventintherealworldandourimaginationofthisevent.Theagendasettingprocessdescribeshowpublicopinionplaysaroleinademocracy.40yearslater,Cohencontinuedtocontributetothedevelopmentofagendasetting.Hepointedoutthatthepresshasnotbeenverysuccessfulintellingpeople"howtothink",butitisextremelyeffectiveintellingpeople"whattothink".Ofcourse,itwasn'tuntil1972thatMcComsandShaw'sarticlewaspublishedinthe"QuarterlyJournalofPublicOpinion"thattheagendasettingwasnamed.Asoneofthefirstscholarswhodiscussedthemacroeffectsofmasscommunication,Lipmanmadeagreatcontributiontothegenerationanddevelopmentofthistheory.Hisclassicwork"PublicOpinion"hasalsoenduredforalongtimebecauseoftheincisivediscussionoftheabove-mentionedcommunicationissues.

Parker's „ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl“

TheDepartmentofSociologyattheUniversityofChicagoisthefirstDepartmentofSociologyintheUnitedStates,andtheChicagoSchoolisthemostprominentinthefieldofAmericansocialsciencesinthe20thcentury.Schoolofinfluence.AmongtheChicagoSchool,theonewhohasthegreatestinfluenceoncommunicationisRobertParker,whoisknownasthe"scholarwhopioneeredthestudyofmasscommunication."

Parkerhasnotmanybooksinhislife.Otherssaythatheisthekindofpersonwhowouldratherguideotherstowrite10booksthantakethetimetowriteabookbyhimself.Inadditiontohisdoctoraldissertation,"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl"publishedin1922ishisonlywork.Hehasmadeaseriesofinfluentialreportsandpublishedanintroductiontohisstudents'books.However,hismostinfluentialis"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl",whichisbyfarthemostimportanttextbookandreadingaboutearlyAmericancommunication.

The"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl"consistsoffourpartsandeighteenchapters.Thefirstpartis"TheLivingSoilofImmigrationNewspapers",dividedintofourchapterstointroducethereasonsfortheexistenceofforeignlanguagenewspapers,theEuropeanbackgroundofimmigrationnewspapers,theintegrationofimmigrationnewspapersandperiodicals,andtheenlightenmentbroughtbyimmigrationnewspapers;thesecondpartis"TheStatusofForeignLanguageNewspapers"Fivechaptersanalyzeadvertising,thedevelopmentoflocalnewspapers,urbannewspapers,urbannewspapersandwars,classstruggle;thethirdpart"Historyofimmigrationnewspapers",dividedintofivechapterstointroducethenewspapersfoundedbyearlyimmigrants,laterimmigrantnewspapers,newspapersandjournalsThereflectionofitsimmigrationstatus,thestruggleforthesurvivalofnewspapersandtheresultsofthesurvivalofthefittest;thefourthpart"presscontrol",dividedintofourchapterstodiscusscontrollevers,Hemelin'smanipulationandcontrol,adversarypropagandaandgovernmentintervention,alliancecontrol.

"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl"cameoutasaresultofethnicworriesaboutthepossibledisloyaltyofAmericanimmigrants.WillthousandsofGerman-AmericansbeloyaltotheUnitedStatesorwilltheybeloyaltoK.William?Willtheyspreadpropaganda,orwilltheyengageinsabotage?Parkerdirectedresearchonforeignlanguagenewspapersforimmigrants.HefoundthatYiddish,Polish,GermanandothernewspapersmainlyhelpedrecentimmigrantstounderstandhowtosurviveinNorthAmerica.Fewnewspapersencourageloyaltytotheoriginalmotherland.AmericanforeignlanguagenewspapersgraduallyformedtheirownrolebyhelpingtheirimmigrantreadersassimilatetoAmericanculture.

IntheUnitedStates,Parkerwasthefirsttostudytherelationshipbetweenminorities(ethnicities)andthemedia.Attheendofthe19thcenturyandthebeginningofthe20thcentury,alargenumberofnewimmigrantscametotheUnitedStates.HowtoassimilatethesenewimmigrantswasageneralconcernofmainstreamAmericansocietyatthattime.Atthesametime,Americansocietyalsoexcludesnewimmigrants.Parkerwentdeepintoethnicminoritycommunities.Afterinvestigatingdozensofforeign-languagenewspapersandperiodicals,hepublishedamonographonimmigrationnewspapersandperiodicals"ImmigrationNewspapersandTheirControl"in1922,opposingthesuppressionorcontrolofthesenewspapers.Heemphasizedthattheirrolehelpstomaintainethnicculture,andallowsreaderstocomeintocontactwithmetropolitanlifethroughthelanguageoftheirhometown,sothatimmigrantscansmoothlyintegrateintoAmericansociety.Parkerfocusedonempiricalanalysisandtookthesolutionofsocialrealityashismainresearchdirection.HeinvestigatedtheslumsofChicagoandtheseriouscrimeproblemsatthattime.Parker'sresearchcontentandmethodshavehadahugeimpactonscholarswhostudymediafromasociologicalperspectiveinEurope,America,Japanandothercountriesinthefuture.

In"ImmigrationNewspapersandItsControl",Parkermentionedatopicthatcommunicationhasbeenstudyinguntilnow:Howdoesmediacontentaffectpublicopinion?Howisthemassmediaaffectedbypublicopinion?Canmassmediabringaboutsocialchange?Howdoesinterpersonalcommunicationconnectwithmasscommunication?ItsdefinitionofcommunicationissimilartoShannon'slaterinformationtheory.

The People’s Choice by Lazarsfield

PaulF.Lazarsfieldhasanimportantideologicalinfluenceontheformationofmoderncommunicationresearch,andisthepioneerofcommunicationeffectresearchBy.FromhisfirstresearchonthedisseminationeffectofradioaudiencesinViennain1930,tothe"BroadcastResearchProject"intheUnitedStatesin1937andtheUSpresidentialelectionin1940,hemadeanimpactthroughanalyticaluseofsamplesurveys.Causalinferencesaboutindividualbehavior."ThePeople'sChoice",whichwascompletedbyLazarsfeldandhisassistants,iscalled"oneofthemostcomplicatedinvestigationsinthehistoryofsocialscience",andisalsoaclassicworkoncommunicationeffects.

"People'sChoice"usesthe1940USpresidentialelectionasananalysiscasetoexplainhowvotersmakevotingchoicesundertheinfluenceofmassmediaandinterpersonalrelationships.

TheincentivethatpromptedLazarsfeldandotherstostudythebehaviorofthepublicinthepresidentialelectionwasWorldWarII.Thewarmachinedirectlypromotedmanyhumanitiesandsocialsciences,includingcommunicationstudies,intheUnitedStates.Development:Sociologistswereorderedtostudythemoraleofsoldiers,soastomakethementaloutlookoftheentirearmymoreconducivetocombat;socialpsychologistswereorderedtostudytheeffectivenessofpoliticalpropaganda,soastomakegovernmentordersmoreeasilyacceptedbythepublic;anddeepAnthropologistsfamiliarwiththeculturesofcountriesaroundtheworldareresponsibleforprovidingadvicetothegovernmenttoreducethefrictionthattheU.S.governmenthaswhendealingwithJapan,SouthKoreaandothercountries.Thesuccessofthesescholarsintheirrespectivefieldshasbroughtahighreputationandawiderrangeofresearchfieldstothehumanitiesandsocialsciences.Variousemergingresearchfieldsbasedonsocialneedshavealsopromptedthehumanitiesandsocialsciencestogetridofpurelyspeculativeresearchmethodsandreplacethemwithempiricalresearchmethods,becauseeveryresearchresultisexpectedtoexplainoractonpressingsocialissues.Thebasisforthegovernmenttoformulatepolicies.Both"People'sChoice"andPositivistCommunicationStudieswereborninthisacademicatmosphere.

Thecontributionof"People'sChoice"totheacademicthoughtofcommunicationismainlyreflectedintwoaspects.Oneisthelimitedeffecttheoryofmasscommunication,andtheotheristheformationoftheviewpointsof"two-levelcommunication"and"publicopinionleader".

Earlypropagandatheoristssupportedpowerfulmassmedia,butlatercommunicationscholarsdidnotfindsuchpowerfuleffectswhenstudyingmedia’sinfluenceonelectionbehavior,consumerdecision-making,andothertypesofbehaviorchanges.evidence.ThemainscholarwhobegantodoubtthepowerfulmassmediaeffectivenesstheorywasLazarsfield,anditwashisErieCountystudythatsparkedhissuspicion.

Lazarsfieldandothershopetoprovethatthemassmediahasadirectandpowerfuleffectinformingpeople’sintentionsabouthowtoactinthepresidentialelection.Heassumedthatvotingdecisionsinthepresidentialelectionwouldbemadeduringthecampaignandwouldbeaffectedbynewsandspecialreportsaboutelectionissuesandcandidatesinthemassmedia.Buttheresultsofthestudyrevealedtheopposite:ManyvotersinErieCountymadeuptheirmindsbeforetheelectioncampaignbegan.Only54ofthe600respondentshadswitchedfromonecandidatetoanother,andonlysomeoftheseconvertsdidsodirectlybecauseoftheinfluenceofthemassmedia.Themediacanonlyinformandpersuadesomekeyindividuals,thatis,thoseindividualswhowerelatercalled"leadersofpublicopinion,"theyinsteadcommunicatewiththeirfollowersthroughinterpersonalcommunication,thatis,useatwo-levelcommunicationandcirculationmodeltocombinethiseffect.Toexpand.

Inaddition,theintroductionofface-to-faceinterviews,groupexperiments,andquantitativeanalysismethodsintocommunicationresearchisalsoamajorcontributionofLazarsfieldtothecommunicationmethodologysystem.Reading"People'sChoice"cannotonlyhaveaclearunderstandingoftheearlydevelopmentofthedisciplineofcommunicationstudies,butalsolearnalotofeffectiveresearchmethods.

HaroldRaswell’s"TheStructureandFunctionofSocialCommunication"

ManyofusknowHaroldRaswell,mostlyfromhisfamousThe5Wpropagationmodestarted.In"TheStructureandFunctionofSocialCommunication",Laswellmadeamorecomprehensivediscussionontheprocess,structureandfunctionofsocialcommunication,andclearlyexplainedthe5Wcommunicationmodelandthethreefunctionsofmasscommunication.

In1948,Laswellpublishedanarticle"TheStructureandFunctionofSocialCommunication".Assoonasthepapercameout,itwaswidelypraisedandbecameoneoftheclassicachievementsofearlycommunicationstudies.Sofar,theacademiccirclesstillgiveitaveryhighevaluation,thinkingitisaprogrammaticmasterpiece,adeclarationofindependenceincommunicationstudies.IeventhinkthatallcommunicationstudiesseemtobeanannotationtoLaswell’sthesis,becauseitinvolvesmanybasiccontentsincommunication.Onthewhole,thesignificanceofthispaperismainlyreflectedintwoaspects:oneistoanalyzethevariouselementsofthecommunicationprocessfromtheinternalstructure;theotheristosummarizethesocialroleofcommunicationactivitiesfromtheexternalfunction.

Inthisarticle,Laswellclearlyputsforwardthecommunicationprocessanditsfivebasicelements,namely:who?What?Towhom?Whatchannel?Whateffectdiditachieve?ThisisthefamousLaswell5Wmodel,whichisconciseandclear,andisaclassicinthecommunicationprocessmodel.Manyscholarslatermadevariousrevisions,supplementsanddevelopments,butmostofthemretaineditsessentialcharacteristics.Thismodelalsolaysdownthefivebasiccontentsofcommunicationstudies:"controlanalysis","contentanalysis","mediaanalysis","audienceanalysis"and"effectanalysis".Thesefiveanalysescoverthemainareasofcommunicationresearch.Inaddition,ithasalsoledtotheemphasisondefiniteeffectsincommunicationstudies.

Anothermajorcontributionofthisarticleistoputforwardthethreebasicfunctionsofmasscommunicationandanalyzeitspossiblenegativefunctions.

Thesethreefunctionsare:monitoringtheenvironment,coordinatingsociety,andculturalinheritance.Thesethreefunctionsaremainlyfromtheperspectiveofpoliticalscience;in1959,CharlesWrightaddedthefunctionof"entertainment"fromtheperspectiveofsociology.Asaresult,theclassicfour-functiontheoryofmasscommunicationincommunicationstudieshasbeenformed.Tothisday,itisstillthebasicintroductoryknowledgethatcommunicationstudentsmustlearn.Asaninformationexchangeactivityinhumansociety,communicationhasmanysocialfunctions.AndLaswell’sexpositionprovidesabasisforcomprehensivelyrevealingthefunctionofmasscommunication.Sincethen,manyscholarshaveenrichedandexpandeditfromdifferentanglesandlevels.

Inadditiontotheabove-mentioned5Wcommunicationmodelandthethreefunctionsofmasscommunication,Laswellhasalsomademanyothercontributionsinthefieldofcommunication.Hepioneeredcontentanalysisandinventedqualitativeandquantitativemethodologiesformeasuringdisseminationofinformation;hisresearchonpoliticalpropagandaandwartimepropagandarepresentsanimportanttypeofearlycommunication,andtoday’spropagandaanalysishasbeenincludedInthegeneralsystemofcommunicationresearch;heintroducedFreud’spsychoanalytictheoryintoAmericansocialsciencesandcombineditwithpoliticalanalysis,thusapplyingtheFreudiantheorywithintheindividualonthesociallevel;healsohelpedFoundedPolicyScience,whichisaninterdisciplinarysubjectthatintegratessocialscienceknowledgeandpublicbehavior.Therefore,althoughLaswelldoesnotconsiderhimselfacommunicationscholar,thereisnodoubtthattherearemanyLaswell'sthoughtsandworksintoday'scommunicationresearchfield.Manyofhispioneeringworkshavelaidthebasicscopeandlevelofcommunicationstudies,andheiswell-deservedoneofthefoundersofcommunicationstudies.

Šíření světla

Lighttravelsinastraightlineinthesamehomogeneousmedium.Smallholeimaging,solarandlunareclipses,andtheformationofshadowsallprovethisfact.

Leaveasidethewavenatureoflight,andbasedonthestraightlinepropagationoflight,thedisciplinethatstudiesthepropagationoflightinmediaandthelawofobjectimagingiscalledgeometricoptics.Ingeometricoptics,ageometriclinewithanarrowrepresentsthedirectionoflightpropagation,whichiscalledaray.Geometricalopticstreatsanobjectasacombinationofcountlessobjectpoints(inapproximatecases,theobjectcanalsobeusedtorepresenttheobject),thelightbeamemittedbytheobjectpointisregardedasacollectionofcountlessgeometriclightrays,andthedirectionofthelightraysrepresentsthetransmissiondirectionoflightenergy.Theseconceptsareobviouslycontrarytothewavenatureoflight,butifthesizeoftheresearchobjectwearediscussingismuchlargerthanthewavelengthoflight,anditsfinestructuredoesnothavetobeveryrigorouslyconsidered,theconclusiondrawnbygeometricopticsisstillAgoodapproximation.(Applyingwaveoptics,youcangetarigoroussolutiontotheproblemoflightpropagation),becausethegeometricopticsmethodissimpleandconvenient,itisoftenusedinsolvingopticaltechnologyproblems.

Therearethreelawoflightpropagationingeometricoptics:(1)Thelawoflightpropagationinastraightlineisasabove.Geodesyisalsobasedonthis.(2)ThelawofindependentpropagationoflightThetwobeamsoflightdonotinterferewitheachotherwhentheymeetduringthepropagationprocess,andcontinuetopropagateaccordingtotheirrespectivepaths.Whenthetwobeamsconvergeatthesamepoint,thelightenergyatthatpointissimplyadded.(3)Thelawoflightreflectionandrefraction.Whenlightencounterstheinterfacebetweentwodifferentmediaduringitspropagation,partofitreflectsandpartofitrefracts.Reflectedlightobeysthelawofreflection,andrefractedlightobeysthelawofrefraction.

Speedoflight

Rychlost šíření světla (elektromagnetické vlny) ve vakuu. Akceptovaná hodnota v roce 2013 je C=299792458 m/s (přesná hodnota)

Generallyroundedto3×10⁸m/s,itisoneofthemostimportantphysicalconstants.

Beforethe17thcentury,astronomersandphysicistsbelievedthatthespeedoflightwasinfinite,andthatthelightemittedbystarsintheuniversereachedtheearthinstantaneously.Galileofirstraiseddoubtsaboutthis.Hedidanexperimenttomeasurethespeedoflightbetweenthetopsofthetwomountainsin1607.Becausethespeedoflightwastoohighandtheexperimentaldevicewastoorough,hewasunsuccessful.In1676,theDanishastronomerRomerusedastronomicalobservationstomeasurethespeedoflightforthefirsttime.In1849,theFrenchscientistFizeausuccessfullymeasuredthespeedoflightonthegroundusingacleverdeviceinhislaboratory.In1973,EvansonoftheAmericanBureauofStandardsusedthelasermethodtousefrequencyandwavesumtodeterminethespeedoflighttobe(299792485+1.2)m/s.Confirmedbythe15thInternationalConferenceonMetrologyin1975,theabove-mentionedspeedoflightisusedasaninternationalrecommendedvalue.Atthe17thInternationalConferenceonMetrologyin1983,thenewdefinitionofthemeterwasadoptedasthelengthoflighttravelina"vacuum"withinatimeintervalof1/299792458seconds.

Inthisway,thespeedoflighthasbecomeadefinedvalue,anditsaccuracyiszero.Therewillbenoneedforprecisemeasurementinthefuture.Thelengthunitmetersandthetimeunitsecondsaredirectlyrelatedthroughthisdefinedvalue.

Oneofthebasicprinciplesofspecialrelativityistheprincipleofconstantspeedoflight.Thisisconsistentwiththedefinitionofthespeedoflightasafixedvalue.However,therearestillpeoplewhoarestilltestingwhetherthespeedoflightisconstantwithhigheraccuracy.