Kůra

Geologická stavba

Chemické složení horní vrstvy je převážně kyslík, křemík a hliník. Průměrné chemické složení je podobné jako u žuly. Říká se tomu žulová vrstva, která se také nazývá "křemičito-hlinitá vrstva ve vrstvě".

Thelowerlayerisrichinsiliconandmagnesium,anditsaveragechemicalcompositionissimilartothatofbasalt.Itiscalledabasaltlayer,sosomepeoplecallita"silicon-magnesiumlayer"(inotherwords,theentirecrustisasilicon-aluminumlayer.Becausethealuminumcontentinthelowercruststillexceedsmagnesium;andtherockpartoftheuppermantlecontainsextremelyhighmagnesium,itiscalledthesilicon-magnesiumlayer);itisdistributedinthecontinentsandoceansandisacontinuouslayer.ThetwofloorsareseparatedbyaConraddiscontinuity.

Crustthickness

Thecrustistheoutermostlayeroftheearth'ssolidsurfacestructure.Theaveragethicknessoftheentirecrustisabout17kilometers,ofwhichthecontinentalcrustisthicker,about39-41onaverage.km.Thecrustinhighmountainsandplateauareasisthicker,upto70kilometers;thecrustinplainsandbasinsisrelativelythin.Oceaniccrustismuchthinnerthancontinentalcrust,onlyafewkilometersthick.

TheQinghai-TibetPlateauisthethickestplaceontheearth,withathicknessofmorethan70kilometers;thecrustinthesubmarinevalleyneartheequatorisonly1.6kilometersthick;thedeeptrenchintheeasternMarianaIslandsinthePacificOceanThethinnestcrustisthethinnestplaceontheearth.

InnerElements

V periodické tabulce chemických prvků je 112 prvků, z nichž 92 prvků a více než 300 izotopů existuje v plášti.

Největším chemickým prvkem v zemské kůře je kyslík, který představuje 48,6 % z celkové hmotnosti; následuje křemík, který představuje 26,3 %; následující oblast hliník, železo, vápník, sodík, draslík a hořčík. 0 druhů prvků představovalo celkem 1,96 %.

Theatomicpercentageoftheaveragecontentofvariouschemicalelementsintheearth'scrustiscalledtheatomicClarkevalue.Thechemicalelementwiththelargestnumberofatomsintheearth'scrustisstilloxygen,followedbysilicon,andhydrogenisthethird.

Asi 99 % organismů se skládá z 10 chemických prvků s vysokým obsahem, jmenovitě kyslíku, uhlíku, vodíku, dusíku, vápníku, fosforu, chlóru, síry, draslíku, sodíku, hořčíku, obsahu železa, manganu, mědi, zinku, boru a molybdenu, všech hořčíku Tantal, stroncium a selen jsou velmi malé, kterým se říká stopové prvky. Vykazuje jistou korelaci mezi člověkem a zemskou kůrou složením chemických prvků.

Themostabundantelementintheearth'scrustisoxygen,butthemostabundantmetalelementisaluminum.

Hliník tvoří 8,3 % zemské kůry, což je dvojnásobek obsahu železa, a tvoří asi jednu třetinu celkových kovových prvků v zemské kůře.

Aluminumisofgreatsignificancetohumanproductionandlife.Ithaslowdensity,goodelectricalandthermalconductivity,goodductility,andisnotpronetooxidation.Itsmaindisadvantageisthatitistoosoft.Inordertotakeadvantageofaluminumandmakeupforitsshortcomings,itisoftenmadeintoalloyswhenused.Aluminumalloyhashighstrength,butitsweightismuchlighterthanordinarysteel.Itiswidelyusedtomakeairplanes,traincars,ships,dailynecessities,etc.Becauseofitsgoodelectricalconductivity,itisusedtotransmitelectricity.Becauseithasgoodcorrosionresistanceandreflectivitytolight.Soalsoshowtheirskillsintheuseofsolarenergy.

EvolutionHistory

Archaean

(asi před 2,5 miliardami let)

ArchaeanItistheoldestandlongestgenerationinthegeologicalage,thatis,theoriginalcrustandtheinitialstageoftheoccurrenceanddevelopmentoftheoriginalatmosphere,hydrosphere,sedimentarycircle,andorganisms.

TheArcheanstratumiscomposedofdeepmetamorphicgneissandparagneiss.Theoldestknownageismorethan4billionyears.Basedonthis,itisbelievedthatasmallgranitecrustappearedontheearthbeforethis.Theappearanceofparagneissesmetamorphosedfromsedimentaryrocksindicatesthattherewasaprimitiveatmosphereandhydrosphereatthattime,aswellaspurephysicalandchemicalweathering.Thebaseofthesecrystallinemetamorphicrocksiscoveredwithalightlymetamorphicgreenstonebelt,includingvolcanicrocksandsedimentaryrocks,whichwereformedinthedepressionzoneonthegroundatthattimeandonlylaterundergonemetamorphism.Itsageisbetween3.4billionand2.3billionyears.ItisspeculatedthatthereweremanysmallgraniticlandmassesonthesurfaceoftheEarthintheearlyArchean,andtherewerepaleo-oceanswithvaryingdepthsbetweenthem.Later,thesmalllandmasseswerecombinedintolargercontinentalplatesduringmigration.Theseoldestlandmasseshavebeenscatteredinvariouscontinents,whichisthecoreoftheso-calledstablelandmasses-thecratonorancientshieldarea.

Thearchaeancrustalmovementandmagmaticactivityarebothextensiveandintense;volcaniceruptionsarefrequent,sotheatmosphereandhydrospherecanbeformed.Theareaof​​thepristineoceanmaybelargerthanweknow,buttheaveragewaterdepthismuchshallower.Themetamorphiciron-manganesedepositsrichinmarinestratifiedsedimentsandgolddepositsformedbymagmaticactivitiesallovertheworldwereformedduringthisperiod.Theatmosphereatthattimemayberichincarbondioxide,watervapor,andvolcanicdust,withonlyasmallamountofnitrogenandabioticoxygen.Theseawaterisalsoacidicmineralizedwater(onlygraduallyneutralizedlater),andthelandishotandbarren.Insomesuitableshallowseaenvironments,someinorganicsubstanceshaveundergonechemicalevolutiontobecomeorganicsubstances(proteinsandnucleicacids),andthendevelopintolivingprokaryoticcells,constitutingsomesimpleformsofbacteriaandcyanobacteriawithoutrealnuclei.ThisonlyappearedinthelateArchaeanperiod.

Ingeneral,Archaeanistheformationstageoftheprimitivegeographiccircle.Thelandistheprimitivedesertlandscape,andthewateristheplacewherelifebredandoriginated.Atthattime,theexchangeofmaterialandenergybetweentheearth'scrustandtheuniverseandbetweenthemantleandtheearthwasmuchstrongerthaneversince.

Proterozoikum

(před 2,5 miliardami až 600 miliony let)

IntheProterozoic,thecontinentalcrustgraduallychangedfromFromsmalltolarge,fromthintothick,volcanicactivityisrelativelyreduced,andthelithologyalsochangesfrombasictoacidic.TheLowerProterozoichasahugeaccumulationofclastics,whichgreatlyfacilitatesthestronggranitizationactivityandtheformationoflargeintrusions.DuetothedecreaseofCO2concentrationintheatmosphereandtheincreaseofCaandMgionsinthewater,carbonaterockswithchemicaldepositsbegantoappear.Itwilldirectlyaffecttheevolutionofthemagmaticprocess,leadingtotheappearanceofalkalinederivativerocks.Asthefreeoxygenintheatmosphereincreases,anoxidizingenvironmentalsobeginstoappear.Asaresult,mineralssuchasoolitichematiteandsulfateandthefirstbatchofredbedswereproducedinthelaterperiod.Theappearanceoforganismshaslittleimpactontheenvironment,sothereisnolargeamountofbiochemicaldepositsintheProterozoic.MorainerockswerealsodiscoveredattheendoftheProterozoic,whichwastheproductofthefirstglobaliceage.

Atthistime,prokaryoteshaveevolvedintoeukaryotes,andanaerobicorganismshavetransformedintoaerobicorganisms(thisturningpointiscalledtheYuripoint,whichoccurswhentheoxygencontentintheatmosphereincreasestoathousandthofthecurrentatmosphericoxygenconcentrationOneofthetime),thenumberofspecieshasalsoincreasedfromsmall.Atthistime,theplantkingdomontheearthgotgreatdevelopmentforthefirsttime,andthereappearedalargenumberofrelativelyprimitivelowerplantscapableofphotosynthesisandrespiration,suchasgreenalgae,chara,brownalgae,redalgaeandsoon.Thesemicropaleontscanbeusedforstratigraphicdivisionandcomparison.InthelateProterozoic,primitiveanimalsalsoappeared.Forexample,theEdiacaranfaunainAustraliaincludesfossilsofaquaticinvertebratessuchassponges,jellyfish,arthropods,flatwormsandmolluskcorals.FossilsofspongespiculeshavealsobeenfoundinNorthAmerica.

ThereweremanycrustalmovementsintheProterozoic,includingtheWutaiMovementinmycountry,theLuliangMovement,theChengjiangMovement,andtheJixianMovement.InNorthAmerica,thereweretheKnorrMovement,theHudsonMovement,andtheGlenvilleMovement.Sports,beltsports,etc.Thefoldbeltsformedbythepreviousorogenicmovementsgraduallycombinedtheoriginalsmalllandblocksintoancientland,andlaterbecametheancientfoldbaseandcoreofeachcontinent.Theprecambrianlandplatform(orplatform),onlyexposedItaccountsfor1/5ofthelandarea.Accordingtopaleomagneticresearch,boththeNorthAmericanLorraineandtheAfricanancientlandexperiencedmultiplepoleshiftsintheProterozoic(E.lrvingetal.,1975;J.D.E.Piper,1976).

Paleozoikum

(před 600 miliony až 230 miliony let)

ThePaleozoicincludestheCambrian,Ordovician,Silurian,Devonian,CarboniferousandPermian.Accordingtoresearch,between600millionand700millionyearsago,thecontinentexperiencedmanydivisionsandunions.AttheendoftheProterozoic(LatePrecambrian),thescatteredcontinentsonceunitedtoformapancontinent.DuringtheCambrian,thepancontinentsplitandbecameGondwanainthesouth.Thenorthwasdividedintothreecontinents:NorthAmerica,EuropeandAsia.Mediterranean).TheCaledonianorogenicmovementbeganattheendoftheOrdovician.BytheDevonian,thepre-Caledoniantroughhadfoldedintomountains,andancientEuropeandNorthAmericacombinedintoacontinent.AftertheHercynianmovementintheLateCarboniferous,theQianhaixitroughdisappearedandtheEuropeanandAmericancontinentsmergedwiththeGondwanacontinent.InthelatePermian,theformerUralSeaalsodisappeared,theEurasiancontinentwasformed,andtheworldbecameanewpan-continent.

AccordingtothestudybyWangQuanetal.(1979),thenatureoftheancientlandoftheMiddleDynastyinthenorthofChinaandtheancientlandoftheYangtzeinthesouthareverydifferent.ThelatterisverydifferentfromtheGondwanaancientlandinthesouthernhemisphereresemblance.TheybelievethattheYangtzeancientlandwaspartoftheGondwanaancientlandintheEarlyPaleozoic,andlatersplitanddriftednorthward.ItwasonlyinthelatePaleozoicthatitcollidedandmergedwiththeChineseancientland.TheQinling-HuaiyangMountainsbetweenthetwoIt'sagroundstitch.Theophiolitesetofrocks(comprisedofserpentinite,peridotite,gabbroandpillow-shapedbasicvolcanicrocks,etc.)belongingtotheeruptionoftheoceaniccrustandmantlewasalsofoundhere.Itisanindicatorofcontinentalsutures.Rockformations).ThestudyofancientgeomagnetisminmycountryalsobelievesthatinthelateProterozoic,theYangtzeancientlandwasroughlylocatedinthenorthernIndianOcean,separatedfromtheChineseancientlandinthenorthbytheocean.

Thecrustalmovementandtheseparationandintegrationoflandandseainthegeomorphicerahavebroughtgreatchangestothegeographicalenvironment:thedivisionofcontinentscausestransgression,andthemergerofcontinentscausesregression;italsohasasignificantimpactonbiologicalevolution.SincetheCambrian,thedivisionandunionofthemainlandandthenumberofmarineinvertebrateshavechangedsignificantly.

IntheCambrian,thepan-continentsplitandcausedatransgression,thecontinentalshelfwaswidespread,andmarineinvertebratesprosperedunprecedentedly.Amongthem,arthropodtrilobitesaccountedfor60%ofthetotalfossils,brachiopodsItaccountsforabout30%,andtheothersonlyaccountfor10%.Atthistime,marineplantsalsoshowedsignsoftransitiontoterrestrialplants.Forexample,thealgalcoalfoundintheCambrianstratainmycountryisanexample.TheOrdovicianseabedexpandedextensively,andbrachiopods,hornstones,graptolites,nautilus,andcoralsbecamecosmopolitanspecies.Theprimitivefish-jawlessfish(jawfish)alsoappeared.InadditiontothecontinueddevelopmentofmarineanimalsintheSilurianperiod,duetoseverecrustalmovementandenvironmentalchanges,marineanimalsenteredthecontinentalfreshwaterarea.Therealfish-jawedfishandwater-transportingfishsuitableforshoregrowthOrganizedvascularplantswerealsoborn.SincetheLatePaleozoicEraaftertheDevonian,continentstendedtomergeandregresscontinuedtooccur.Manymarineinvertebrates'settlementsdisappeared,andtheirtypesandnumbersweregreatlyreduced.Onthecontrary,fishflourishes,andterrestrialplantsflourish.Thesurfaceoftheearthhassinceendedaneraofdesertandozone-free.WhentheCarboniferousandPermianbecametheheydayofamphibians,theplantkingdomalsodevelopedfromsporeplantstogymnosperms.IntheCarboniferousandPermiancontinents,largeforestsdominatedbyfernsweredistributed,whichbecameanimportantcoal-makingperiodingeologicalhistory.

Mezozoikum

(před 230 až 70 miliony let)

TheMesozoicincludesTriassicandJurassicAndtheCretaceousperiod.Therearealotofdatathatprovethatthere-splitofthepan-continentoccurredintheMesozoic,thatis,itbeganintheLateTriassic,mainlysplitintheJurassicandCretaceous,andcontinuedtotheCenozoic.Thispan-continentoriginallyextendedtothenorthandsouthpoles,theequatorialpartwasnarrow,andtherewastheTethysSea(theancientMediterraneanSea).DuringtheTriassic-Jurassicperiod,NorthAmericaandAfricasplit,theNorthAtlanticbegantoexpand,andthepan-continentwasdividedintoLaurasia(LawrenceandAsia)inthenorthandGondwanainthesouth.DuringtheJurassic-Cretaceousperiod,SouthAmericaandAfricasplit,andtheSouthAtlanticbegantoexpand.AfricaandIndiaalsoseparatedfromAntarcticaandAustralia(thetwowerestilltogether)duringtheJurassic,andbegantoformtheIndianOcean.DuringtheCretaceous,theNorthAtlanticwidenednorthward,theSouthAtlanticalreadyhadacertainscale,Indiadriftednortheast,theIndianOceanalsoexpanded,whiletheancientMediterraneantendedtoshrink.

IntheMesozoic,therewerestrongorogenyinvariouspartsoftheMesozoic.EuropehadtheOldAlps,theAmericasweretheNevadaandLaramymovements,andChinawastheIndosinianandYanshanmovements.Atthistime,folds,fracturesandmagmaticactivitiesareextremelyactive.AseriesofCathaysia-styleupliftsanddepressionswereformedineasternmycountry.Theformationofmanynon-ferrousandraremetaldepositswasrelatedtothemagmaticactivityatthistime.Mineralssuchascoal,petroleumandoilshalewerealsoformedinfaultedbasins.Thebasicoutlineofmycountry'smainlandwasalsoestablishedatthistime.

ThebiologicalworldhasagreatdevelopmentcomparedwiththePaleozoic.GymnospermsthatappearedattheendofthePaleozoicerahavebecomethemostprosperouscategoryintheMesozoicera.Theyreproducedbyseeds,andthefertilizationprocesscompletelygotridofthedependenceonwater,makingthemmoresuitableforterrestrialhabitats.Thisisanotherleapinplantevolution.Themassivedevelopmentofterrestrialplantssuchascycads,ginkgo,conifers,etc.,notonlycreatedfavorableconditionsforcoalformation(suchastheJurassiccoalseamswidelydistributedintheworld),butalsoprovidedabundantresourcesforthedevelopmentofreptiles.Foodbasis.

IntheMesozoicera,reptilesbecamethemostprosperouschordatesatthattime.Thereareherbivorousandmeat-eatingdinosaursonland,ichthyosaursandplesiosaursinthesea,andpterosaursintheair.Atthesametime,therewerealsolizards,turtles,turtles,crocodiles,frogsandinsects.Ammonitesamongmarineinchondratesarealsoextremelyprosperous.Therefore,somepeoplerefertotheMesozoicastheageofdinosaurs,theageofammonites,ortheageofcycads.However,bytheendoftheCretaceous,mostofthesespeciesoflifethatflourishedwereextinct,andonlyapartofthemsurvived.Atthattime,theprimitivebirdsandmammalsthathadappearedbutwereatadisadvantageenteredthespectacularnewgeneration;angiospermshavealsoflourishedsincethen.

Nová generace

(před 70 miliony let – 21. století)

ThenewgenerationincludestheoldtertiaryandthenewTheThirdEpochandtheQuaternaryEpocharethemostrecentgenerations.FollowingtheMesozoicEra,theseafloorcontinuedtoexpand,AustraliaandAntarcticaseparatedEastAfrica,andIndiacollidedwithEurasia.StrongcrustalmovementoccurredintheTertiaryPeriod,calledtheNeo-AlpineMovementinEurope,andHimalayanMovementinAsia.AseriesofhugefoldsformedintheancientMediterraneanbelt(Alps-Himalayanbelt)andthecircum-Pacificbelt.Differentialascendinganddescendingmovementssuchasarchesandfaultsalsooccurredintheancientplatformareas,andredbedswerewidelydevelopedinthefaultedbasins.ThisorogenicmovementandtheaccompanyingretreatcausedsignificantchangesinthenaturalgeographicalenvironmentinheritedfromtheMesozoic.

Fromaglobalperspective,thesurfaceoftheOldTertiaryismainlyawarmandhumidclimate.Aftertheintenseorogenicmovement,theatmosphericcirculationsystem,especiallytheregionalcirculationsystem,hasalsochanged,andmanyplacestendtobedryandcold.TheupliftoftheQinghai-TibetPlateauinwesternmycountryhasagreatimpactontheeasternmonsooncirculationsystem,especiallyinsouthernChina,whichhasbecomeawarmandhumidforestlandscapedifferentfromthatofthesamelatitude.IntheQuaternary,duetothefurthercoolingofthetemperateandpolarclimates,large-scaleglaciationstookplaceontheearthandexperiencedmanychangesinglacialandinterglacialperiods.Biologyalsochangesduetochangesinhabitat.

Intheplantkingdom,theOldTertiarywascharacterizedbythegreatdevelopmentofangiosperms.Theplantcommunitychangedfrommonotonousconiferousforeststoevergreenbroad-leavedforestswithabundantflowersandfruits.Whentheclimatebecamedryandcold,thevegetationinmanyplacesexperienceddroughtandbiochemicalphenomena.AgrasslanddominatedbymonocotyledonousplantsappearedatthebeginningoftheNeo-Tertiary,andatundraappearedintheQuaternary.Theanimalkingdomischaracterizedbytheunprecedentedprosperityofmammals,sothenewgenerationisalsocalledtheeraofmammals.Theluxuriantangiospermsinthehotandhumidforestareagreatlypromotethedevelopmentofmammals.Theprosperityofinsectsisalsorelatedtothedevelopmentofangiosperms.Thewidespreaddistributionofangiospermsandinsectshaspromotedtheprosperityofbirds.Whenthegrasslandareaexpanded,manyherbivorousgrasslandfaunaappearedintheungulatesandrodents,andthecarnivoresthatfollowedincreased.

ItisparticularlyimportantthathumansappearedintheQuaternaryPeriod.Thisisaneventofgreatsignificanceinthehistoryoftheearth.Afterthecomplicateddevelopmentprocessofhumanbeings,ithasgraduallybecomeanimportantfactorindisturbing,controllingandtransformingthenaturalenvironment.Therefore,theQuaternaryEraisalsocalledthe"spiritualgeneration".

Pohyb

Důkazy

Sincetheformationoftheearth'scrust,ithasbeenmovingallthetime,andthismovementhascausedcontinuouschangesinthestructureoftheearth'scrust.Anearthquakeisareflectionofthecrustalmovementthatpeoplefeeldirectly.Themorecommoncrustalmovementisgoingonforalongtimeandslowly,anditisalsodifficulttodetect.Itcanonlybedetectedwiththehelpoflong-termobservationswithinstruments.Forexample,geodeticsurveydataprovesthattheHimalayasarestillrisingatarateof0.33to1.27cmperyear.

Thecrustalmovementoftheearthduringthegeologicalperiodcannotbeknownbydirectmeasurement,butithaslefttracesinthecrust.Wheretherocksareexposedinmountainousareas,thesedimentaryrocklayersareofteninclined,bent,orevenfracturedstaggered,allofwhicharetheresultofdeformationoftherocklayerunderforce.Inthecoastalareaof​​Rongcheng,Shandong,theformerbeachisnow20-40metersabovethesea.IntheareasofZhangzhouandXiameninFujian,theoldbeacheshavealsobeenabout20metersabovethesea,indicatingthatthecrustisrisingintheseplaces.AnancientHaiherivercourseofapproximately7kilometershasbeendiscoveredontheseabedoftheBohaiSeainmycountry,whichindicatesthattheBohaiSeaanditscoastalareasareareaswitharelativelyhighrateofdeclineinmoderntimes.Foranotherexample,thebeautifulYuhuaStoneswereproducedinYuhuatai,Nanjing.Thesesmoothpebbleswithbeautifulpatternsarenaturalrelicsoftheancientriverbed.AlargenumberofpebblesarepiledupinYuhuatai,whichshowsthatthereusedtobeariverinthepast.Later,thecrustroseandtheriverwasabandoned,anditbecamethegravelofYuhuataithatismuchhigherthanthewatersurfaceoftheYangtzeRiver.

Klasifikace pohybu kůry

Klasifikační tabulka pohybu kůry

Příčiny pohybu kůry

Differenttypesofcrustalmovementhavedifferentcauses.

Pohyb kůry a její vznik pomocí ekliptické roviny s referenčním objektem

Theorbitalplaneoftheearthorbitingthesuniscalledtheeclipticplane.Thepositionchangeofthecrustanditsconstituentrockswiththeeclipticplaneasthereferenceobjectisthelargestcrustalmovement.

Pohyb kůry

Thistypeofcrustalmovementisdividedintothreesub-categories:oneisthepositionchangeofthecrustrelativetotheeclipticplanecausedbytherotationoftheearth;Thepositionoftheeclipticplanechanges;thethirdisthechangeintheinclinationoftheearth'saxis,andthepositionofthecrustrelativetotheeclipticplanechanges.

Thistypeofcrustalmovementcauseschangesindayandnight,seasons,andclimate,andcauseschangesinthesunandmoon'sgravitationalpullontheearth,whichinturntriggersothertypesofcrustalmovement.

Thecauseofthiskindofcrustalmovement:causedbytheoriginandevolutionofthesolarsystem.

Pohyb a geneze kůry na základě osy země

Thepositionalchangesofthecrustanditsconstituentrockswiththeaxisoftheearthasthereference,followedbythescaleInthefirsttypeofcrustalmovement,theearthandmagneticpolesaredisplaced.Thechangerelativetotheearth'saxis,thatis,theearth'spolehasmoved.Thistypeofcrustalmovementcauseschangesintheearth'scrustandgroundgeographiccoordinates,aswellaschangesinseasonsandclimate,andchangesinthegravitationalbalancebetweentheearth,thesunandthemoon.

Causesofthistypeofcrustalmovement:Thelayeredearthisformedbytherotationoftheoutersphereoftheearthunderthegravitationalforceofthesunandthemoon;othercausesmayalsoexist.

Pohyb kůry a jeho geneze je založena na zeměpisných souřadnicích

Thepositionalchangesofthecrustalanditsconstituentrocksbasedongeographiccoordinates,Thistypeofcrustalmovementformedlarge-scalecrustalupliftsanddepressions,formingmountainsandplateaus,formingplainsandbasins,andformingmountainsandvalleys.

Themainsourcesofpowerforthistypeofcrustalmovementareasfollows:

1. Denudace, doprava a sedimentace vody a větru

ThistypeofgeologicalprocessnotonlyformsThecrustalmovementofvaryingscales,andtheformedsedimentsandsedimentaryrocksarethematerialbasisfortheformationofmountainsandplateaus.

Thecrustalmovementformedbytheerosion,transportationanddepositionofwaterreducestherelativeheightofthecrust,stripshighandfillsdepressions,andbalancesthecrust.

Eroze, transport a ukládání větru, vlastnosti eroze, transport a ukládání větru na horninách:

Winderosionoccursinlow-rainandaridareas,notonlydenudinghighmountainsandplateaus,butalsoThevalleysanddepressionsarealsodenuded.

Thetransportingeffectofwindvariesfromneartofar.Thenearerjustleavesthedenudedplace,andthefarawaycanreachtensofthousandsofkilometers.Itsdepositionareavariesinsize,uptoseveralmillionsquarekilometers.

Winddepositioncanbeonlandorwater;itcanbeindepressionsandplains,anditcanbeinmountainsandplateaus;itcanformquasi-plaindepositsormountaindeposits.

Aeolianterrainiseasytochangeandmigrate.Aeoliandepositioncanformclasticrockswithhighdipangles,andcanformsedimentaryfoldstructures.

Thedepositionofwindandwatercanoccursimultaneouslyoralternately.

2.CentrifugalforcefromthepolestotheequatorwhentheearthrotatesThesimulationtestprovesit.

3.Underthegravitationalforceofthesunandthemoon,whentheearthrotatesfromwesttoeast,blocksofdifferentmassesinthecrustwillmovefromeasttowest.Withoutthegravitationalforceofotherplanets,allpartsoftheearth'scrustmoveinauniformcircularmotionwiththerotationoftheearth.Underthegravitationalforceofthesunandthemoon,duetotheunevennessoftheconstituentmaterialsofeachpartoftheearth'scrust,differentialmotionalongthelatitudeoccurs,resultinginsqueezingandseparation.

Složení zemské kůry je nerovnoměrné na velké ploše nebo na malé ploše.

Inalargearea,therearelargeblocksinEuropeandAsia,Africa,NorthandSouthAmerica,andAntarcticaontheland,andseveralblocksinthePacificOcean,IndianOcean,AtlanticOcean,andArcticOceanintheocean.Theselargeblocksaredifferentintopography,materialcomposition,areasize,geometry,geographiclocation,quality,structure,etc.Therearemanysmallblocksinthebigblock.Theselargeandsmallblocksontheearth'scrustareaffectedbythegravitationalpullofthesunandthemoon.Whentheearthrotates,theymoveatdifferentspeeds.Astheearthrotatesfromwesttoeast,theselargeandsmallblocksonthecrustformarelativemovementfromeasttowest.

Pohyb kůry a jeho geneze s pozemními objekty jako referenčními objekty

Crustalmotionwithgroundobjectsasreferenceobjects,therelativemovementofrockscomposedofcrustalmaterialsThedistanceissmallandbelongstoasmallrangeofcrustalmovement.Inadditiontolarge-scalecrustalmovementthatcancausethiskindofcrustalmovement,earthquakes,volcanoes,collapses,meteoriteimpacts,andsomebiologicalactivitiescanallcausethiskindofcrustalmovement.

Teorie pohybu kůry s jednou a více příčinami

Accordingtothenumberoffactorsthatcausecrustalmovement,thetheoryofcrustalmovementcanbedividedintotwoschools:oneistheschoolofsingle-causecrustalmovement,andtheotheristhetheoryofcrustalmovement.Itisaschoolofmulti-causecrustalmovement.

Single-causedcrustalmovementschoolbelievesthatthereismainlyonekindoffactorthatcausescrustalmovement.Thetraditionalcrustalmovementtheorybelongstothisschool,suchascontinentaldrifttheory,seabedexpansiontheory,platetheory,geomechanics,mosaictheory,Diwatheory,faultblocktheory,polycyclictheory,etc.

Themulti-causedcrustalmovementschoolbelievesthattherearemanyfactorsthatcausecrustalmovement,whichbelongtothemoderntheoryofcrustalmovement.ThistheorywasputforwardbyJiangFashiofourcountry.Accordingtothecrustalmovementreference,thecrustalmovementisdividedinto:1.crustalmovementwiththegalacticplaneasthereference;2.crustalmovementwiththeeclipticplaneasthereference;3.crustalmovementwiththeearthaxisasthereference;4.Thecrustalmovementwithgeographiccoordinatesasthereference;5.Thecrustalmovementwiththesurfaceobjectasthereference;6.Thecrustalmovementwiththesphericalsurfaceasthereference.Differenttypesofcrustalmovementsarecausedbydifferentfactors,differenttypesofcrustalmovementshavedifferentmodesandresults,andvarioustypesofcrustalmovementsaresuperimposedoneachother.

Kontinentální teorie driftu

AgeotectonichypothesisproposedbyGermanmeteorologistWegener(1880～1930)in1912.HebelievesthatinthelatePaleozoic,therewasonlyonehugejointancientlandintheworld,calledthe"Pancontinent".IntheMesozoic,duetotidalfrictionandthesqueezingforcefromthepolestotheequator,pan-continentsbegantosplit,andlightergranitecontinentsdriftedontheheavierbasaltmantle,graduallyformingtoday'ssea-landpattern.Hebelievesthatthemountainsontheeartharealsotheproductsofcontinentaldrift.TheCordilleraandtheAndesarefoldmountainsformedbythebasalticbasementofthePacificwhentheAmericancontinentdriftsandslideswestward;Theislandarcgroupisthedebrisleftbythecontinentdriftingwestward;thesoutherntipofGreenland,Florida,TierradelFuego,andotherarcsaretheresultofslidingfrictionandsheddingwestward;theeast-westAlpsandtheHimalayasThelargemountainsaretheresultofthecontinent'ssqueezingfromthepolestotheequator.Basedontheinformationavailableatthattime,Wegenerdemonstratedindetailthetheoryofcontinentaldriftintermsofgeology,topography,paleontology,paleoclimate,andgeodesy.Thishypothesisattractedtheattentionofthegeologyandgeophysicscirclesatthattime.However,manyscholarshaveexpresseddoubtsaboutthemechanismandlawsofcontinentaldrift.Sincethe1950s,paleomagneticstudieshaveshownthatthemovementofmagneticpolesingeologicalhistorycanonlybereasonablyexplainedbythetheoryofcontinentaldrift.Therefore,thetheoryofcontinentaldrifthasgainedanewlife.

Teorie tektoniky desek

In1961and1962,DietzandHertzoftheUnitedStatesputforwardthe"submarineexpansiontheory".Onthisbasis,in1968,FrenchgeologistLePishonandotherspioneeredthe"platetectonicstheory",whichhasnowbecomethemostpopularnewtheoryofearthscience.

Thetheoryofplatetectonicsdividesthegloballithosphereintosixmajorplates:Asia-Europeplate,Africanplate,Americanplate,Pacificplate,IndianOceanplateandAntarcticaplate.Inadditiontothesixmajorplates,therearealsosomesmallplates.Somesub-levelplatescanalsobedelineatedwithinthemainland.Theplatesareboundedbystraitsortrenchesandorogenicbelts.Generallyspeaking,thecrustinsidetheplateisrelativelystable;thejunctionoftheplateandtheplateisarelativelyactivezoneofthecrust,anditsactivitiesaremainlymanifestedbyearthquakes,volcanoes,tensioncracks,dislocation,magmarise,andcrustalsubduction.Almostallvolcanoesandseismicactivitiesintheworldarelocatedneartheboundaryoftheplates.

Thetheoryofplatesbelievesthattheearth'scrustisbornanddied.Duetotheexpansionoftheoceanfloor,thebottomoftheoceanisconstantlyupdated,andthecontinentsonlymovewiththeexpansionoftheoceanfloor.Intheprocessofrelativemovement,theplateseithersplittothetwosidesorcollidedwitheachother,thusformingthebasicappearanceoftheearth'ssurface.Forexample,300millionyearsago,EuropeandAfricawereconnectedwithSouthandNorthAmerica.Later,theAtlanticridgeappeared.Newoceaniccrustcontinuedtoformandexpandedonbothsideswithitasthecentralaxis,whichseparatedtheabove-mentionedcontinents.Inthepast70millionyears,theIndianplatehascontinuouslymovednorthwardandcollidedwiththeAsia-Europeplate,creatingtheHimalayas.TheGreatRiftValleyofEastAfricaisatthebeginningoftheopeningoftheAfricancontinentandisintheembryonicstageofproducingnewoceaniccrust.TheGulfofAdenintheRedSeaistheresultoftheexpansionandcrackingofthecrustonbothsides,anditisinthejuvenilestageoftheoceaniccrust.TheMediterraneanasweknowitrepresentstheendofthedevelopmentoftheoceans.ItistheoceanthatremainsafteralongperiodofevolutioninthevastancientMediterranean.

Asforthedrivingforceofplates,somepeoplethinkthatitismantleconvection,andsomepeoplethinkthat“hotspots”and“hotplumes”inthemantlearchthelithosphereandmakeitdownwardundertheactionofgravity.Thereareotherpropositionsaboutslidingandpushingplates,andthereisnounifiedunderstanding.

Continentaldrift-submarineexpansion-platetectonics,thisisatrilogyofthedeepeninganddevelopmentofhumanunderstandingofcrustalmovement.

Teorie mimozemské rotace

ThetheoryofextraterrestrialrotationwasproposedbyZhangWeizhiin2012andhassincebeenrevised.TheJiangfamily(JiangFashi)dividedthecrustalmovementinto:1.crustalmovementwiththegalacticplaneasthereference;2.crustalmovementwiththeeclipticplaneasthereference;3.crustwiththeearthaxisasthereference.Movement,4.crustalmovementwithgeographiccoordinatesasareference,5.crustalmovementwithasurfaceobjectasareference,6.crustalmovementwithasphericalsurfaceasareference.JiangShifaisarepresentativeofmanycausesofcrustalmovement.Thecauseofcrustalmovementwiththeaxisoftheearthasareference,JiangShifaexplainedthatitwasformedbytherotationoftheoutersphereoftheearth.Jiangreclassifiedthestructureofthesolidearth,asshowninthefollowingtable:

Tabulka strukturypevné země

Pohyb pozemské koule

Theearthrotatesandrevolvesinanorbit.Atthesummersolstice,thenorthernhemisphereoftheearthisclosertothesun,andthesolargravitationalforcereceivedisgreaterthanthatofthesouthernhemisphere.Atthewintersolstice,thesolargravityonthenorthernandsouthernhemispheresoftheearthisoppositetothatatthesummersolstice.Astheearthrevolvesaroundthemasspointoftheearthandthemoon,thenutationoftheearth,andtheprecessionoftheearth'saxisproducetheshakingactionoftheearth.Theshakingactionoftheearthcausestheoutersphereoftheearthtorotateinthedirectionofthesun'sgravitationalforce,justlikethebeansinthedustpan.Whenthedustpanisshaken,thebeanswillrotateinthetiltdirectionofthedustpan.ThemovementoftheinnerballoftheearthPutastoneinabottlefilledwithwater,tiearope,holdoneendoftheropetomakethebottlerotate,theresultis:thestoneinthebottleisalwaysbiasedtotheothersideofgravity.Inthesameway,theinnersphereoftheearthalwaysleanstotheothersideofthesun'sgravity.Therotationoftheearth'soutersphereformsthemovementoftheearth'sandmagneticpoles,andformsthemovementoftheearth'scrustrelativetotheearth'saxis.TherotationofAntarcticafromlowlatitudestotheSouthPoleisformedbytherotationoftheoutersphereoftheearth.