Konstruktivismus

Ideologický původ

TheearliestproponentofconstructivismcanbetracedbacktoJ.PiagetinSwitzerland.Heisthemostinfluentialpsychologistinthefieldofcognitivedevelopment.Theschoolhefoundedonchildren'scognitivedevelopmentiscalledtheGenevaSchool.Piaget'stheoryisfullofmaterialistdialectics,insistingonstudyingchildren'scognitivedevelopmentfromtheviewpointoftheinteractionbetweeninternalandexternalfactors.Hebelievesthatchildrengraduallyconstructknowledgeabouttheexternalworldintheprocessofinteractingwiththesurroundingenvironment,soastodeveloptheirowncognitivestructure.

Theinteractionbetweenchildrenandtheenvironmentinvolvestwobasicprocesses:"assimilation"and"adaptation".Assimilationreferstotheabsorptionandintegrationofrelevantinformationfromtheexternalenvironmentintothechild'sexistingcognitivestructure(alsocalled"schema"),thatis,individualsintegratetheinformationprovidedbyexternalstimuliintotheiroriginalcognitivestructureAdaptationreferstotheprocessofreorganizationandtransformationofchildren’scognitivestructurecausedbychangesintheexternalenvironment,andtheoriginalcognitivestructurecannotassimilatetheinformationprovidedbythenewenvironment,thatis,theindividual’scognitivestructureisaffectedbyexternalstimuliAndtheprocessofchange.Itcanbeseenthatassimilationistheexpansionofthenumberofcognitivestructures(schematicexpansion),whileadaptationisthechangeofthenatureofthecognitivestructure(schematicchanges).Cognitiveindividuals(children)achievebalancewiththesurroundingenvironmentthroughtwoformsofassimilationandadaptation:whenachildcanuseexistingschemastoassimilatenewinformation,heisinabalancedcognitivestate;andwhenWhentheexistingschemacannotassimilatenewinformation,thebalanceisdestroyed,andtheprocessofmodifyingorcreatinganewschema(ie,conforming)isaprocessoffindinganewbalance.Children'scognitivestructureisgraduallyconstructedthroughtheprocessofassimilationandadaptation,andiscontinuouslyenriched,improvedanddevelopedinthecycleof"balance-imbalance-newbalance".ThisisPiaget'sbasicviewofconstructivism.

OnthebasisofPiaget’sabovetheory,Kohlberghasmadefurtherresearchonthenatureofcognitivestructureandthedevelopmentconditionsofcognitivestructure;SternbergandKatzOthersemphasizedthekeyroleofindividualinitiativeintheprocessofconstructingcognitivestructure,andmadeaseriousexplorationofhowtoexertindividualinitiativeinthecognitiveprocess;the"culturalhistorydevelopmenttheory"foundedbyVygotskyItemphasizestheroleofthesocial,culturalandhistoricalbackgroundofthelearnerinthecognitiveprocess.Onthisbasis,theVereiroSchoolheadedbyVygotskyhasthoroughlystudiedthe"activity"and"socialcommunication"intheadvancedpsychologicalfunctionsofpeople.Animportantroleindevelopment.Allthesestudieshavefurtherenrichedandperfectedthetheoryofconstructivism,andcreatedconditionsforpracticalapplicationintheteachingprocess.

Teorie učení

Constructivismisderivedfromthetheoryofchildren’scognitivedevelopment.Sincetheindividual’scognitivedevelopmentiscloselyrelatedtothelearningprocess,constructivismcanbetterillustratehumanThecognitivelawsofthelearningprocesscanbetterexplainhowlearningoccurs,howmeaningisconstructed,howconceptsareformed,andwhatmajorfactorsshouldbeincludedinanideallearningenvironment,andsoon.Inshort,undertheguidanceofconstructivism,asetofnewandmoreeffectivecognitivelearningtheoriescanbeformed,andamoreidealconstructivistlearningenvironmentcanberealizedonthisbasis.

Základní obsah konstruktivní teorie učení lze provést ze dvou hledisek: „význam učení“ (to znamená „co se učit“) a „metoda učení“ (to znamená „jak se učit“).

Význam učení

Constructivismbelievesthatknowledgeisnotimpartedbyteachers,butlearnersuseotherpeople(includingteachersandlearningThehelpofpartners)isobtainedbymeansofmeaningconstructionusingthenecessarylearningmaterials.Sincelearningisaprocessofmeaningconstructionachievedthroughinterpersonalcollaborationactivitieswiththehelpofotherpeopleinacertaincontext,thatis,asocialandculturalbackground,theconstructivistlearningtheorybelievesthat“situation”,“collaboration”,“conversation”and"Senseconstruction"isthefourmajorelementsorattributesinthelearningenvironment."Context":Thecontextinthelearningenvironmentmustbeconducivetotheconstructionofthemeaningofthecontentlearnedbythestudents.Thisputsforwardnewrequirementsforinstructionaldesign.Inotherwords,inaconstructivistlearningenvironment,instructionaldesignmustnotonlyconsidertheanalysisofteachingobjectives,butalsoconsiderthecreationofsituationsthatareconducivetotheconstructionofmeaningforstudents,andlookatthecreationofsituations.Workisoneofthemostimportantcontentsofinstructionaldesign."Collaboration":Collaborationoccursthroughoutthelearningprocess.Collaborationplaysanimportantroleinthecollectionandanalysisoflearningmaterials,theformulationandverificationofhypotheses,theevaluationoflearningresults,andthefinalconstructionofmeaning."Conversation":Conversationisanindispensablepartofthecollaborationprocess.Themembersofthestudygroupmustdiscusshowtocompletetheprescribedlearningtaskplanthroughconversation;inaddition,thecollaborativelearningprocessisalsoaconversationprocess,inthisprocess,eachlearner'sthinkingresults(wisdom)aresharedbytheentirelearninggroup,soConversationisoneoftheimportantmeanstoachievemeaningconstruction."Senseconstruction":Thisistheultimategoaloftheentirelearningprocess.Themeaningtobeconstructedrefersto:thenatureandlawsofthingsandtheinternalconnectionsbetweenthings.Tohelpstudentsconstructmeaninginthelearningprocessistohelpstudentsachieveadeeperunderstandingofthenatureandlawsofthethingsreflectedinthecurrentlearningcontentandtheinternalconnectionsbetweenthethingsandotherthings.Thelong-termstorageformofthisunderstandinginthebrainistheaforementioned"schema",whichisthecognitivestructureofwhatiscurrentlybeinglearned.Fromthemeaningof"learning"mentionedabove,itcanbeseenthatthequalityoflearningisafunctionofthelearner'sabilitytoconstructmeaning,notafunctionofthelearner'sabilitytoreproducetheteacher'sthinkingprocess.Inotherwords,theamountofknowledgeacquireddependsonthelearner’sabilitytoconstructthemeaningoftheknowledgebasedonhisownexperience,ratherthanonthelearner’sabilitytomemorizeandrecitewhattheteacherteaches.

Metody učení

Constructivismadvocateslearner-centeredlearningundertheguidanceofteachers,thatistosay,itemphasizestheroleofthelearner’scognitivesubjectwithoutignoringitTheguidingroleoftheteacheristhattheteacheristhehelperandpromoterofmeaningconstruction,ratherthantheimparterandindoctrinatorofknowledge.Studentsarethemainbodyofinformationprocessingandtheactiveconstructorofmeaning,ratherthanthepassiverecipientsandindoctrinatedobjectsofexternalstimuli.Tobecomeactivebuildersofmeaning,studentsarerequiredtoplayamajorroleinthelearningprocessfromthefollowingaspects:

(1)Useexplorationanddiscoverymethodstoconstructthemeaningofknowledge;

(2)Intheprocessofconstructingmeaning,studentsarerequiredtoactivelycollectandanalyzerelevantinformationandmaterials,putforwardvarioushypothesesandtrytoverifytheproblemstheyarelearning;

(3)Trytoconnectthethingsreflectedinthecurrentlearningcontentwiththethingsyoualreadyknow,andthinkaboutthisconnectionseriously."Connecting"and"thinking"arethekeytomeaningconstruction.Iftheprocessofconnectionandthinkingcanbecombinedwiththenegotiationprocess(thatis,theprocessofcommunicationanddiscussion)incollaborativelearning,studentswillbemoreefficientinconstructingmeaningandbetterinquality.Therearetwotypesofnegotiation:"self-negotiation"and"mutualnegotiation"(alsocalled"internalnegotiation"and"socialnegotiation").Self-negotiationreferstoarguingwithoneselfaboutwhatiscorrect;mutualnegotiationreferstothemutualnegotiationwithinthestudygroupDiscussionanddebate.

Ifateacherwantstobeahelperinconstructingmeaningforstudents,teachersarerequiredtoplayaguidingroleintheteachingprocessfromthefollowingaspects:

(1)Stimulatestudents’interestinlearningandhelpStudentsformlearningmotivation;

(2)Helpstudentsconstructthemeaningofcurrentknowledgebycreatingcontextsthatmeettherequirementsoftheteachingcontentandpromptingtheconnectionbetweennewandoldknowledge.

(3)Inordertomakemeaningconstructionmoreeffective,teachersshouldorganizecollaborativelearning(discussionandexchange)whenpossible,andguidethecollaborativelearningprocessinadirectionthatisconducivetomeaningconstructiondevelop.Guidancemethodsinclude:askingappropriatequestionstoarousestudents’thinkinganddiscussion;tryingtodeepentheproblemstepbystepinthediscussiontodeepenthestudents’understandingofthecontent;inspiringandinducingstudentstodiscovertherulesandcorrectthembythemselvesAndsupplementthewrongorone-sidedunderstanding.

Výuka Myšlenky

Theteachingthoughtscontainedinconstructivismaremainlyreflectedintheviewofknowledge,theviewoflearning,theviewofstudents,thepositioningandroleofteachersandstudents,thelearningenvironmentandteachingprinciples,etc.6aspects.

KnowledgeView

(1)Knowledgeisnotapurelyobjectivereflectionofreality,norisanysymbolsystemthatconveysknowledgearepresentationofabsolutetruth.Itisjustanexplanation,hypothesisorhypothesisoftheobjectiveworldbypeople.Itisnotthefinalanswertothequestion.Itwillinevitablyundergocontinuoustransformation,sublimationandrewritingaspeople'sunderstandingdeepens,andnewexplanationsandhypotheseswillappear.

(2)Knowledgecannotsummarizethelawsoftheworldabsolutelyandaccurately,andprovidepracticalmethodsforanyactivityorproblemsolving.Inthesolutionofspecificproblems,knowledgecannotbeaccurateandeffectivewhenused.Instead,theoriginalknowledgeneedstobereprocessedandrecreatedaccordingtothesituationofthespecificproblem.

(3)Knowledgecannotexistoutsidetheindividualintheformofanentity.Althoughacertainexternalformisgiventoknowledgethroughlanguage,andithasgainedmoregeneralrecognition,thisdoesnotmeanlearningThereadershavethesameunderstandingofthiskindofknowledge.Realunderstandingcanonlybeconstructedbylearnersthemselvesbasedontheirownexperiencebackground,anddependsontheprocessoflearningactivitiesunderspecificcircumstances.Otherwise,itisnotcalledcomprehension,butrotememorizationorrotelearning,whichispassivecopyinglearning.

Viewonlearning

(1)Learningisnotaprocessinwhichteacherssimplytransferknowledgetostudents,butisaprocessinwhichstudentsconstructknowledgethemselves.Studentsdonotsimplyreceiveinformationpassively,butactivelyconstructthemeaningofknowledge.Thisconstructioncannotbereplacedbyothers.

(2)Learningisnottopassivelyreceiveinformationstimulation,buttoactivelyconstructmeaning.Itistoactivelyselect,processandprocessexternalinformationaccordingtoone'sownexperiencebackground,soastoobtainone'sownmeaning.Externalinformationitselfhasnomeaning.Themeaningisconstructedbylearnersthroughtherepeatedandtwo-wayinteractionprocessbetweennewandoldknowledgeandexperience.Therefore,learningisnotlikethe"stimulus?response"describedbybehaviorism.

(3)Theacquisitionoflearningmeaningisthateachlearnerre-recognizesandencodesnewinformationbasedonhisownoriginalknowledgeandexperience,andconstructshisownunderstanding.Inthisprocess,thelearner'soriginalknowledgeandexperienceareadjustedandchangedduetotheentryofnewknowledgeandexperience.

(4)Assimilationandadaptationaretwowaysorwaysthatlearners'cognitivestructurechanges.Assimilationisthequantitativechangeofcognitivestructure,whileadaptationisthequalitativechangeofcognitivestructure.Assimilation-Adaptation-Assimilation-Adaptation...cyclical,balance-imbalance-balance-imbalance,mutualalternation,thedevelopmentofhumancognitivelevel,issuchaprocess.Learningisnotasimpleaccumulationofinformation,butmoreimportantly,itcontainstheconflictbetweenoldandnewknowledgeandexperience,andthereorganizationofthecognitivestructurecausedbythis.Thelearningprocessisnotsimpleinformationinput,storageandextraction,butatwo-wayinteractionprocessbetweennewandoldknowledgeandexperience,thatis,theprocessofinteractionbetweenthelearnerandthelearningenvironment.

StudentView

(1)Constructivismemphasizesthatlearnersdonotenterthelearningsituationwiththeirheadsempty.Indailylifeandvariousformsoflearninginthepast,theyhaveformedrelevantknowledgeandexperience,andtheyhavetheirownviewsoneverything.Eveniftherearesomeproblemstheyhaveneverbeenincontactwith,andthereisnoexistingexperiencetolearnfrom,butwhentheproblemispresentedtothem,theywillstillformanexplanationoftheproblemandputforwardtheirhypothesisbasedontheirpastexperienceandrelyingontheircognitiveability..

(2)Teachingshouldnotignorethelearners’existingknowledgeandexperience,andsimplyandforcefully“fillin”thelearners’knowledgefromtheoutside,butshouldtakethelearners’originalknowledgeandexperienceasnewThegrowthpointofknowledgeguideslearnerstogrownewknowledgeandexperiencefromtheoriginalknowledgeandexperience.Teachingisnotthetransferofknowledge,buttheprocessingandconversionofknowledge.Teachersarenotonlythepresenterofknowledge,notasymbolofknowledgeauthority,butshouldattachimportancetostudents'ownunderstandingofvariousphenomena,listentotheircurrentviews,thinkabouttheoriginoftheirideas,andusethisasabasistoguidestudentstoenrichoradjustOwnexplanation.

(3)Teachersandstudents,studentsandstudentsneedtoexploresomeproblemstogether,andcommunicateandquestioneachotherintheprocessofexploration,andunderstandeachother'sideas.Duetotheinevitabledifferencesinexperiencebackground,learners'viewsandunderstandingoftheproblemareoftenvastlydifferent.Infact,inthestudentcommunity,thesedifferencesthemselvesareavaluablephenomenonresource.Althoughconstructivismattachesgreatimportancetoindividualself-development,hedoesnotdenyexternalguidance,thatis,theinfluenceofteachers.

Orientace učitelů a studentů

(1)Theroleofteachersisaloyalsupporterofstudents'knowledgeconstruction.Theroleoftheteacherhaschangedfromthetraditionalauthorityofknowledgetransfertothetutorofstudentlearning,becomingtheseniorpartnerorcollaboratorofstudentlearning.Teachersshouldprovidestudentswithcomplexrealquestions.Notonlymusttheydevelopordiscovertheseproblems,buttheymustalsorecognizethattherearemultipleanswerstocomplexproblems,andencouragestudentstohavemultipleviewsonproblemsolving.Thisisobviouslyincloseagreementwiththepurposeofcreativeteachingactivities.Teachersmustcreateagoodlearningenvironmentinwhichstudentscanstarttheirlearningthroughexperiments,independentexploration,cooperativelearning,etc.Teachersmustensureabalancebetweenlearningactivitiesandlearningcontent.Teachersmustprovidestudentswithmetacognitivetoolsandpsychologicalmeasurementtools,cultivatestudents'criticalcognitiveprocessingstrategies,andconstructtheirownmentalmodelsofknowledgeandunderstanding.Teachersshouldrecognizethatteachinggoalsincludecognitivegoalsandemotionalgoals.Teachingisaprocessofgraduallyreducingexternalcontrolandincreasingstudents'self-controlledlearning.

(2)Ifteacherswanttobeactivehelpersandguidesforstudentstoconstructknowledge,theyshouldstimulatestudents'interestinlearning,andstimulateandmaintainstudents'learningmotivation.Bycreatingscenariosthatmeettherequirementsoftheteachingcontentandcluesthatsuggesttheconnectionbetweenthenewandtheoldknowledge,ithelpsstudentsconstructthemeaningofthecurrentknowledge.Inordertomakestudents'meaningconstructionmoreeffective,teachersshouldorganizecollaborativelearningasmuchaspossible,launchdiscussionsandexchanges,andguidethecollaborativelearningprocesstodevelopinadirectionthatisconducivetomeaningconstruction.

(3)Theroleofstudentsisanactiveparticipantinteachingactivitiesandanactivebuilderofknowledge.Constructivismrequiresstudentstofacecomplexreal-worldsituationsandcompletetasksincomplexreal-worldsituations.Therefore,studentsneedtoadoptanewlearningstyleandnewcognitiveprocessingstrategiestoformthattheyareknowledgeableandunderstandable.Thementalmodeloftheconstructor.Constructivistteachingrequiresstudentstotakeonmoreopportunitiestomanagetheirownlearningthantraditionalteaching;teachersshouldpayattentiontokeepingtheopportunitiesalwaysinthe"student'srecentdevelopmentzone"proposedbyVygotsky,andprovidestudentswithcertainguidance.Studentsshoulduseexplorationanddiscoverytoconstructthemeaningofknowledge.Intheprocessofconstructingmeaning,studentsarerequiredtoactivelycollectandanalyzerelevantinformation,putforwardvarioushypothesesontheproblemstheyhavelearned,andtrytoverifythem.Wemustbegoodatlinkingthecurrentlearningcontentwithourownknowledgeandexperienceasmuchaspossible,andcarefullyconsiderthislink.Connectionandthinkingarethekeytomeaningconstruction.Itsbesteffectistointegratewiththenegotiationprocess.Construction

Vzdělávací prostředí

Constructivismbelievesthatlearners’knowledgeisbasedonthehelpofothersinacertaincontext,suchascollaboration,communication,andusebetweenpeople.Information,etc.,obtainedthroughtheconstructionofmeaning.Theideallearningenvironmentshouldincludefourparts:context,collaboration,communicationandmeaningconstruction.

(1) Souvislosti

Thecontextinthelearningenvironmentmustbeconducivetotheconstructionofthelearner'smeaningofthecontent.Ininstructionaldesign,creatingacontextthatfacilitatestheconstructionofmeaningforlearnersisthemostimportantlinkoraspect.

(2) Spolupráce

Shouldrunthroughtheentirelearningactivityprocess.Thecollaborationbetweenteachersandstudents,andbetweenstudentsandstudentsplaysaveryimportantroleinthecollectionandanalysisoflearningmaterials,theformulationandverificationofhypotheses,theself-feedbackofthelearningprocess,theevaluationoflearningresults,andthefinalconstructionofmeaning.Collaborationisasenseofnegotiationinacertainsense.Negotiationmainlyincludesself-negotiationandmutualnegotiation.Self-negotiationmeansthatoneselfandoneselfrepeatedlydiscusswhatismorereasonable;mutualnegotiationmeansthediscussion,discussionanddebatewithinthestudygroup.

(3) Komunikace

isthemostbasicwayorlinkintheprocessofcollaboration.Forexample,themembersofthelearninggroupmustdiscusshowtocompletetheprescribedlearningtaskstoachievethegoalofmeaningconstructionthroughcommunication,andhowtoobtainmoreguidanceandhelpfromteachersorothers.Infact,theprocessofcollaborativelearningisaprocessofcommunication.Inthisprocess,theideasofeachlearneraresharedbytheentirelearninggroup.Communicationisavitalmeanstopromotethelearningprocessofeachlearner.

(4)Význam konstrukce

istheultimategoaloftheteachingprocess.Themeaningofitsconstructionreferstothenatureandlawsofthingsandtheinternalconnectionsbetweenthings.Tohelpstudentsconstructmeaninginthelearningprocessistohelpstudentsachieveadeeperunderstandingofthenatureandlawsofthingsreflectedinthecurrentlearningcontentandtheinternalconnectionsbetweenthethingsandotherthings.

Vyučovací principy

(1)Putalllearningtasksinthelearninginordertobeabletoadapttotheworldmoreeffectively.

(2)Theteachinggoalsshouldbeconsistentwiththegoalsinthestudents'learningenvironment,andtheproblemsidentifiedbytheteachershouldmakethestudentsfeelthattheyaretheirownproblems.

(3)Designrealtasks.Realactivityisanimportantfeatureofthelearningenvironment.Thatis,realtasksanddailyactivitiesorpracticesshouldbeusedinclassroomteachingtointegratemultiplecontentorskills.

(4)Thedesigncanreflectthecomplexenvironmentinwhichstudentsengageineffectiveactionsaftertheendofthestudy.

(5)Givestudentstheautonomytosolveproblems.Teachersshouldstimulatestudents'thinkingandinspirethemtosolveproblemsontheirown.

(6)Designalearningenvironmentthatsupportsandstimulatesstudents’thinking.

(7)Encouragestudentstotesttheiropinionsinthesocialcontext.

(8)Supportstudentstoreflectonwhattheyhavelearnedandthelearningprocess,developstudents’self-controlskills,andbecomeindependentlearners.

Výukový režim

Theteachingmodethatiscompatiblewiththeconstructivistlearningtheoryandtheconstructivistlearningenvironmentis:"Student-centered,theteacherwillstarttheorganizer,Theroleofinstructor,helperandfacilitator,usingcontext,collaboration,conversationandotherlearningenvironmentelementstogivefullplaytotheinitiative,enthusiasmandinitiativeofstudents,andultimatelyachievethepurposeofeffectivelyconstructingthemeaningofthecurrentknowledge."Inthismodel,studentsaretheactiveconstructorsofthemeaningofknowledge;teachersaretheorganizers,instructors,helpersandfacilitatorsofmeaningconstructionintheteachingprocess;theknowledgeprovidedbytextbooksisnolongerthecontenttaughtbyteachers.Itistheobjectthatstudentsactivelyconstructmeaning;themediaisnolongerameansandmethodtohelpteachersimpartknowledge,butisusedtocreatesituations,collaborativelearningandconversationalcommunication,thatis,asacognitivetoolforstudentstolearnactivelyandcollaborativelyexplore.Obviously,onthisoccasion,thefourelementsofteachers,students,teachingmaterials,andmediahavecompletelydifferentrolesandrelationshipswitheachothercomparedwithtraditionalteaching.However,theserolesandrelationshipsarealsoveryclearandveryclear,andthusbecomeanotherstablestructuralformoftheteachingactivityprocess,thatis,theteachingmodeundertheconstructivistlearningenvironment.

Undertheteachingmodeofconstructivism.Themorematureteachingmethodsthathavebeendevelopedmainlyincludethefollowing:

Lešení

(Návod na lešení)

Lešeníteachingisdefinedas:"Scaffoldedteachingshouldprovidelearnerswithaconceptualframework(conceptualframework)forconstructinganunderstandingofknowledge.Theconceptsinthisframeworkareneededforthedevelopmentoflearners'furtherunderstandingoftheproblem.Forthisreason,thecomplicatedThelearningtasksaredecomposedsoastograduallyleadthelearners’understandingtoadeeperlevel."

Thescaffoldoriginallyreferstothescaffoldusedintheconstructionindustry.Itisusedheretovividlydescribeateachingmethod:childrenarewatchedWorkisabuilding,andchildren's"learning"isaprocessofcontinuouslyandactivelyconstructingthemselves;whileteacher's"teaching"isanecessaryscaffoldingtosupportchildrentocontinuouslyconstructthemselvesandconstantlybuildnewabilities.Lešeníteachingisbasedonthe"recentdevelopmentzone"theoryofthefamousSovietpsychologistVygotsky.Vygotskybelievesthatwhenmeasuringchildren’sintellectualdevelopment,atleasttwolevelsofdevelopmentofchildrenshouldbedetermined:oneisthechild’scurrentlevelofdevelopment,andtheotheristhepotentiallevelofdevelopment.Theareabetweenthesetwolevelsiscalled"Areaof​​RecentDevelopment".Teachingshouldstartfromthechild'spotentiallevelofdevelopment,andconstantlycreatenew"nearestdevelopmentzones".The"scaffolding"inthescaffoldingteachingshouldbeestablishedbasedonthestudents'"recentdevelopmentzone",andtheroleofthescaffoldingistocontinuouslyguidethestudents'intelligencefromoneleveltoanotherhigherlevel.

Thescaffoldingteachingiscomposedofthefollowinglinks:

(1)Lešení-aroundthecurrentlearningtheme,press"nearestdevelopmentzone"Requirementstoestablishaconceptualframework.

(2)Enteringthesituation-Introducestudentsintoacertainproblemsituation.

(3)Independentexploration-Letstudentsexploreindependently.Theexplorationcontentincludes:determiningvariousattributesrelatedtoagivenconcept,andarrangingvariousattributesinorderoftheirimportance.Atthebeginningoftheexploration,theteachershouldbeinspiredandguided,andthenletthestudentsanalyzeitbythemselves;theteachershouldprompttimelyduringtheexplorationprocesstohelpstudentsgraduallyclimbalongtheconceptualframework.

(4)Collaborativelearning-conductgroupnegotiationanddiscussion.Theresultsofthediscussionmayincreaseordecreasetheattributesoriginallydeterminedandrelatedtothecurrentconceptslearned,andtheorderofthevariousattributesmayalsobeadjusted,andtheoriginalcomplexsituationwithmultipleconflictingopinionsanddiverseattitudesmaygraduallybegraduallyadjusted.Becomeclearandconsistent.Onthebasisofsharingtheresultsofcollectivethinking,toachieveamorecomprehensiveandcorrectunderstandingofthecurrentconceptslearned,thatis,tofinallycompletethemeaningconstructionofthelearnedknowledge.

(5)Effectevaluation-Theevaluationofthelearningeffectincludestheself-evaluationofthestudentandtheevaluationofthestudygrouptotheindividual.Theevaluationcontentincludes:①Independentlearningability;②Contributionstogroupcollaborativelearning;③Whethertheconstructionofthemeaningofthelearnedknowledgeiscompleted.

Ukotvena

(UkotvenaInstruction)

Thiskindofteachingisbasedoncontagiousrealeventsorrealproblems.Determiningsuchrealeventsorproblemsisvividlycomparedto"anchor",becauseoncesucheventsorproblemsaredetermined,theentireteachingcontentandteachingprocessarealsodetermined(justlikeashipisanchored).Constructivismbelievesthatthebestwayforlearnerstocompletethemeaningconstructionoftheknowledgetheyhavelearned,thatis,toachieveadeepunderstandingofthenatureandlawsofthethingsreflectedintheknowledge,andtherelationshipbetweenthethingsandotherthings,istoletthelearnersTofeelandexperienceintherealenvironmentoftherealworld(thatis,tolearnbyacquiringdirectexperience),ratherthanjustlisteningtoothers(suchasteachers)ontheintroductionandexplanationofthisexperience.Becauseanchoredteachingisbasedonrealcasesorproblems(asan"anchor"),itissometimescalled"case-basedteaching"or"problem-basedteaching"or"situationalteaching".

Ukotvené vyučování se skládá z několika odkazů:

(1)Creatingasituation-sothatlearningcanbebasicallyconsistentwithorsimilartotheactualsituationOccursinthecontextof.

(2)Identifytheproblem-Intheabove-mentionedsituation,chooseauthenticeventsorproblemscloselyrelatedtothecurrentlearningtopicasthecentralcontentoflearning.Theselectedeventorproblemisthe"anchor",andtheroleofthislinkisto"brokentheanchor."

(3)Autonomouslearning-insteadoftheteacherdirectlytellingstudentshowtosolvetheproblemtheyarefacing,theteacherprovidesthestudentswithrelevantcluestosolvetheproblem,andPayspecialattentiontothedevelopmentofstudents'"self-learning"ability.

(4)Collaborativelearning-discussionandexchange,throughtheconfrontationofdifferentviewpoints,supplement,correctanddeepeneachstudent'sunderstandingofthecurrentproblem.

(5)Effectevaluation—Becausethelearningprocessofanchoredteachingistheprocessofproblem-solving,thisprocesscandirectlyreflectthelearningeffectofstudents.Therefore,theevaluationofthiskindofteachingeffectdoesnotrequireaspecialtestindependentoftheteachingprocess.Itonlyneedstoobserveandrecordtheperformanceofstudentsatanytimeduringthelearningprocess.

Náhodnost

(Náhodný přístup)

Duetothecomplexityofthingsandthemulti-facetednatureoftheproblem,itisnecessarytounderstandtheinternalnatureofthingsandtherelationshipbetweenthingsItisverydifficulttofullyunderstandandmastereachother,thatis,totrulyachieveacomprehensiveandprofoundmeaningconstructionoftheknowledgelearned.Differentunderstandingscanoftenbedrawnfromdifferentperspectives.Inordertoovercomethedisadvantagesofthisaspect,itisnecessarytopayattentiontothesameteachingcontent,presentitindifferentwaysatdifferenttimes,indifferentsituations,fordifferentteachingpurposes.Inotherwords,learnerscanfreelyenterthesameteachingcontentthroughdifferentchannelsanddifferentways,soastoobtainamulti-facetedknowledgeandunderstandingofthesamethingorthesameproblem.Thisistheso-called"randomaccesstoteaching".Obviously,learnerswillbeabletoachieveamorecomprehensiveandin-depthgraspoftheknowledgecontentby"entering"thesameteachingcontentmultipletimes.Thiskindofmultipleentryisbynomeanslikeintraditionalteaching,butasimplerepetitiontoconsolidategeneralknowledgeandskills.Eachentryherehasadifferentlearningpurposeandadifferentfocusoftheproblem.Therefore,theresultofmultipleentriesisnotjustasimplerepetitionandconsolidationofthesameknowledgecontent,butaleapinunderstandingandunderstandingofthewholepictureofthelearner.

Instruktážní Design

Theprinciplesofinstructionaldesigninaconstructivistlearningenvironment

Studentsarethesubjectofcognitionandtheactiveconstructorofthemeaningofknowledge;teachersonlyhelpandpromotethemeaningconstructionofstudents,anddonotrequireteacherstodirectlyteachandinstillknowledgetostudents.Intheconstructivistlearningenvironment,thestatusandroleofteachersandstudentshaveundergonegreatchangescomparedwithtraditionalteaching.Expertsinthefieldofeducationaltechnologyhaveconductedalotofresearchandexploration,tryingtoestablishanewsetofteachingdesigntheoryandmethodsystemthatcanbecompatiblewiththeconstructivistlearningtheoryandtheconstructivistlearningenvironment.Althoughtheestablishmentofthistheoreticalsystemisanarduoustask,itcannotbecompletedinashortperiodoftime.However,itsbasicideasandmainprincipleshavebecomecleardaybyday,andhavebeguntobepracticallyappliedtoguidetheteachingdesignofaconstructivistlearningenvironmentbasedonmultimediaandtheInternet.Theteachingdesignprinciplesusedbyconstructivismareasfollows:

Důraz na studenta

Clarify"student-centered",whichisofgreatimportancetoteachingdesignImportantguidingsignificance,becausestartingfrom"student-centered"or"teacher-centered"willresultintwocompletelydifferentdesignresults.Asforhowtoembodystudent-centeredness,constructivismbelievesthatwecanworkhardfromthreeaspects:

Togivefullplaytotheinitiativeofstudentsinthelearningprocess,toreflecttheinitiativespiritofstudents;

Studentsshouldhavemultipleopportunitiestoapplytheirknowledgeindifferentsituations("externalizing"knowledge);Understandingofobjectivethingsandsolutionstopracticalproblems(realizingself-feedback).

Theabovethreepoints,namely,exertingthespiritofinitiative,externalizingknowledgeandrealizingself-feedbackcanbesaidtoembodythethreeelementsofstudent-centeredness.

Emphasizetheimportantroleof"context"intheconstructionofmeaning

Constructivismbelievesthatlearningisalwaysconnectedwithacertainsocialandculturalbackground,namely"context"Yes,learninginactualsituationscanenablelearnerstousetherelevantexperienceintheiroriginalcognitivestructuretoassimilateandindexthenewknowledgetheycurrentlylearn,therebygivingthenewknowledgeacertainmeaning;iftheoriginalexperiencecannotAssimilationofnewknowledgerequiresaprocessof"adaptation",thatis,thetransformationandreorganizationoftheoriginalcognitivestructure.Inshort,theconstructionofthemeaningofnewknowledgecanonlybeachievedthrough"assimilation"and"adaptation".Intraditionalclassroomteaching,becauseitcannotprovidethevividnessandrichnessoftheactualsituation,itwillmakeitdifficultforlearnerstoconstructthemeaningofknowledge.

Emphasisonthekeyroleof"collaborativelearning"intheconstructionofmeaning

Constructivismbelievesthattheinteractionbetweenlearnersandthesurroundingenvironmentandtheunderstandingoflearningcontent(Thatis,theconstructionofthemeaningofknowledge)playsakeyrole.Thisisoneofthecoreconceptsofconstructivism.Undertheorganizationandguidanceoftheteacher,thestudentsdiscussandcommunicatetogether,andjointlyestablishalearninggroupandbecomeamemberofit.Insuchagroup,jointlycriticallyexaminevarioustheories,opinions,beliefsandhypotheses;conductconsultationsanddebates,firstinternalconsultation(thatis,arguingwithoneselfwhichviewiscorrect),andthenmutualconsultation(thatis,thecurrentproblemPresenttheirownopinions,argumentsandrelatedmaterials,andanalyzeandcommentontheopinionsofothers).Throughsuchacollaborativelearningenvironment,thethinkingandwisdomofthelearnergroup(includingtheteacherandeachstudent)canbesharedbytheentiregroup,thatis,theentirelearninggroupcompletesthemeaningconstructionoftheknowledgelearned,ratherthanoneofthem.Oneorseveralstudentscompletemeaningconstruction.

Důraz na design vzdělávacího prostředí

(spíše než výukové prostředí)

ConstructivismbelievesthatthelearningenvironmentissomethingthatlearnerscanAplaceforfreeexplorationandindependentlearning.Inthisenvironment,studentscanusevarioustoolsandinformationresources(suchastextmaterials,books,audio-visualmaterials,CAIandmultimediacourseware,andinformationontheInternet,etc.)toachievetheirlearninggoals.Inthisprocess,studentscannotonlygethelpandsupportfromteachers,butalsocollaborationandsupportamongstudents.Learningshouldbepromotedandsupportedratherthanstrictlycontrolledanddominated;thelearningenvironmentisaplacetosupportandpromotelearning.Theinstructionaldesignguidedbytheconstructivistlearningtheoryshouldbeaimedatthedesignofthelearningenvironmentratherthanthedesignoftheteachingenvironment.Becauseteachingmeansmorecontrolanddominance,andlearningmeansmoreinitiativeandfreedom.

Emphasizetheuseofvariousinformationresourcestosupport"learning"

(místo podpory "učení")

InordertosupportlearningThelearner’sactiveexplorationandcompletionofmeaningconstructionmustprovidelearnerswithvariousinformationresources(includingvarioustypesofteachingmediaandteachingmaterials)duringthelearningprocess.Theuseofthesemediaandmaterialshereisnottoassistteachers'explanationsandpresentations,buttosupportstudents'autonomouslearningandcollaborativeexploration.Howtoobtaininformationresources,wheretoobtainthem,andhowtousethemeffectivelyarethecontentthaturgentlyneedshelpfromteachersintheprocessofactiveexploration.

Emphasizethattheultimategoalofthelearningprocessistocompletemeaningconstruction

(nedokončit výukový cíl)

IntheconstructivistlearningenvironmentItemphasizesthatstudentsarecognitivesubjectsandactivebuildersofmeaning,sotheconstructionofstudents'meaningofknowledgeistheultimategoaloftheentirelearningprocess.Instructionaldesignusuallystartsnotfromanalyzingtheteachinggoals,butfromhowtocreateacontextthatisconducivetotheconstructionofmeaningforstudents.Theentireteachingdesignprocessiscloselyfocusedonthecenterof"meaningconstruction",whetheritisstudents’independentexploration,collaborativelearningorTeacherguidance,inshort,allactivitiesinthelearningprocessmustbesubordinatetothiscenter,andmustbeconducivetocompletinganddeepeningthemeaningconstructionoftheknowledgelearned.

Constructivisttheoryinthefieldofinternationalpolitics

Thestructuralrelationshipbetweenthestructureoftheinternationalsystemandtheunitsoftheinternationalsystemisthebasicperspectiveofsocialconstructivism,andthestructureoftheinternationalsystemissocialTheessenceofthisissharedknowledgeandculture.Itisconceptualratherthanmaterial.Theinteractionbetweenactorsleadstotheformationofstructures.Theactorscreatethestructureandthestructurealsoconstructstheidentityandinterestsoftheactors.Affecttheactors.

"Constructivism"wasoriginallyanewtermcreatedbyRussianartistsandarchitectsin1913.AftertheOctoberRevolution,hewasanimportantnewarttrend.Constructivismiscommonlyusedtodescribeanepistemologicalposition,anditsconnotationisverydifferentfromtheoriginalconstructivism.Itisregardedasasociologicalresearchorientation,whichemphasizesthattheobjectiveworldexiststhroughsocialconstruction,soNamed"Constructivism".Inthestudyofinternationalrelations,NicholasOnouffirstusedthistermin1989.Fromthe1980stothe1990s,thedebatebetweenneo-realismandneo-liberalisminthemainstreamtheorieswasgenerallyregardedasthefocusofthe“paradigmdebate”.Atthesametime,non-mainstreamschoolsareconstantlyemerging,criticaltheories,post-moderntheories,feministtheories,etc.,havechallengedthemainstreamtheories.Questionedthedefinitionandcontentofneorealismandneoliberalism.Socialconstructivismwasbornanddevelopedunderthebackgroundofthiskindofcontroversy.Anditbecameoneoftheimportanttheoreticalschoolsofinternationalrelationsinthe1990s.RepresentativesoftheconstructivistschoolincludeOlef,Kazanstein,Koslowski,Kratokville,etc.,anditsmaintheoristsandmostimportantItwasAlexanderWinter.

Onthewhole,constructivismfocusesonpsychology-based"explanationofbehaviorwithmentality,expectations,knowledge,beliefs,etc.asbasicfactors",whichrepresentsacognitiveorientation.Intheprocessofrigorousandlogicalanalysisofthings,itrejectspurelymaterialthinkingmethodsinsteadoftryingtofindthepsychologicalandculturalfactorsbehindinternationalphenomena.Thenheobservesthecomplexinteractionbetweenphenomenaandcauses,emphasizingtheimportanceofpsychologyandcultureasthefoundation.Headvocateslookingatworldpoliticsfromasociologicalperspective,attachingimportancetothesocialstructureexistingintheworld,anddoesnotdenythepartialobjectivityofmaterialforces,butEmphasizestheimportantroleofrulesintheformationofnationalbenefits,andpointsoutthetwo-wayconstructiverelationshipbetweenactorsandsystemstructures.Hebelievesthatconstructivismininternationalrelationshastwobasicprinciples:(1)Thestructureofhumanrelationsismainlydeterminedbysharedideasratherthanmaterialforces;(2)TheidentityandinterestsofpurposefulactorsaredeterminedbythesesharedideasConstructed,notinherentinnature[3].

Winterbelievesthathissocialconstructiontheoryisbasedonholismasthemethodology,idealismastheontologicalbasis,andscientificrealismastheepistemologicalbasis,emphasizingtheimportanceofideas.ThisistheconstructionofWinterThebasisofismtheory.Hedoesnotadoptthereflective"interpretativemethod",emphasizestheestablishmentofastrictscientificresearchagenda,andputsforwardscientificassumptionsthatcanbefalsified.Fundamentallyspeaking,socialconstructivismrecognizestheimportanceofobjectiveexistence,andherefutessomecriticismsthatconstructivismissubjectiveidealism.Hebelievesthatalthoughconstructivismbelievesthatthereisnocleardefinitionbetweenthesubjectandtheobjectofsocialscienceresearch,herecognizestheobjectiveexistenceofthestatesystemandsocialstructuressuchasthestate.Soinasense,itisincorrectthatconstructivismisidealism.Constructivismbelievesthatthroughtheestablishmentofastrictscientificresearchagendaandcarefulscientificverification,anobjectiveunderstandingofsocietycanbeobtained.Thisseriesofempiricalstudiesofconstructivismadheretotheprinciplesofscientificepistemology.