Chemické činidlo

Definice chemických činidel

Chemicalreagentshavebeenwidelyusedinindustry,agriculture,medicalandhealth,lifesciences,inspectionandquarantine,environmentalprotection,energydevelopment,nationaldefenseandmilitaryindustry,Scientificresearchandallwalksoflifeinthenationaleconomy,butwhatisa"chemicalreagent",whatcontentitcontains,anditisstillaverydifficultthingtogiveitanaccuratedefinition.Earlychemicalreagentsonlyreferto"purechemicalsusedtodeterminethecompositionorcompositionofsubstancesinchemicalanalysisandchemicaltests."Itwaslaterexpandedto"chemicalsusedtoachievechemicalreactions",andthechemicalsreferredtoby"chemicalreagents"havelonggonebeyondthiscategory.Somepeoplethinkthat"chemicalsusedinscientificexperiments"canbecalled"chemicalreagents."Amorecomprehensivedefinitionofchemicalreagentscanbe:compoundsorelementsofvariouspuritylevelsusedinchemicaltests,chemicalanalysis,chemicalresearchandothertests.

Současné národní normy

GB/T14305-1993 chemické činidlo cyklohexan

GB15346-1994balení a značení chemických činidel

GB/T15347-1994chemické činidlo kyselina skorbová

GB/T15895-1995 chemické činidlo 1,2-dichlorethan

GB/T15896-1995chemické činidlo kyselina mravenčí

GB/T15897-1995chemické činidlo uhličitan vápenatý

GB/T15898-1995chemické činidlo dusičnan kobaltnatý hexahydrát (dusičnan kobaltnatý)

GB/T15899-1995 Chemické činidlo síran manganatý monohydrát (síran manganatý)

GB/T15901-1995Chemické činidlo chlorid měďnatý dihydrát (chlorid měďnatý)

GB/T629-1997 chemická činidla hydroxid sodný

GB/T1264-1997 chemická činidla fluorid sodný

GB/T640-1997 chemická činidla hydrogenuhličitan sodný

GB/T671-1998 chemické činidlo síran hořečnatý

GB/T689-1998 chemické činidlo pyridin

GB/T1401-1998 chemické činidlo edetát disodný

GB/T1268-1998 chemická činidla thiokyanát sodný

GB/T642-1999chemické činidlo dvojchroman draselný

GB/T649-1999chemické činidlo Bromid draselný

GB/T684-1999 chemické činidlo toluen

GB/T1276-1999chemické činidlo fluorid amonný

GB/T2305-2000Chemické činidlo oxid fosforečný

GB/T6684-2002chemické činidlo 30% peroxid vodíku

GB/T678-2002chemické činidloethanol (absolutní ethanol)

GB/T12591-2002chemické činidlo ether

GB/T682-2002 chemické činidlo chloroform

GB/T679-2002chemické činidloethanol (95%)

PreparationofGB/T601-2002chemicalreagentstandardtitrationsolution

PreparationofpreparationsandproductsusedinGB/T603-2002chemicalreagenttestmethod

GB/T602-2002PreparationofStandardSolutionforImpurityDeterminationofChemicalReagents

GB/T652-2003Chemické činidloChlorid barnatý

GB/T1265-2003chemické činidlo bromid sodný

GB/T606-2003chemicalreagentwaterdeterminationgeneralmethodKarlFischermethod

GB/T674-2003chemické činidlo Oxid měďnatý v prášku

GB/T656-2003chemické činidlo dichroman amonný

GB/T16493-1996chemické činidlo citrát trisodný dihydrát (citrát trisodný)

GB/T16494-1996chemické činidloxylen

GB/T16496-1996chemické činidlo síran draselný

GB/T16983-1997 chemické činidlo 2methylchlorid

GB/T17521-1998 Chemické činidlo N,N-dimethylformamid

GB/T615-2006Generalmethodforthedeterminationofboilingrangeofchemicalreagent

GB/T9721-2006GeneralRulesofChemicalReagentMolecularAbsorptionSpectrophotometry(UVandVisibleLightPart)

GB/T1263-2006ChemicalReagentDisodiumHydrogenPhosphateDodecahydrate(DisodiumHydrogenPhosphate))

GB/T1266-2006 chemická činidla chlorid sodný

GB/T617-2006generalmethodforthedeterminationofmeltingpointrangeofchemicalreagent

GB/T9722-2006GeneralPrinciplesofPlynová chromatografieforChemicalReagents

GB/T605-2006GeneralMethodforChromaticityDeterminationofChemicalReagents

GB/T614-2006GeneralMethodforDeterminationofRefractiveIndexofChemicalReagents

GB/T622-2006 Chemické činidlo Kyselina chlorovodíková

GB/T626-2006 Chemické činidlo Kyselina dusičná

GB/T616-2006GeneralMethodforBoilingPointDeterminationofChemicalReagents

GB/T9739-2006Chemicalreagentirondeterminationgeneralmethod

GB/T683-2006Chemické činidlomethanol

GB/T611-2006ChemicalreagentdensityGeneralmethodofdetermination

GB/T618-2006Generalmethodfordeterminationofcrystallizationpointofchemicalreagents

GB/T673-2006 Chemické činidlo na oxid farseničitý

GB/T609-2006Generalmethodfordeterminationoftotalnitrogeninchemicalreagents

GB/T637-2006 Chemické činidlo pentahydrát thiosíranu sodného (thiosíran sodný)

GB/T672-2006 Chemické činidlo chlorid hořečnatý hexahydrát (chlorid hořečnatý)

GB/T658-2006Chemické činidlo chlorid amonný

GB/T621-1993 Chemické činidlo Kyselina bromovodíková

GB/T9725-2007GeneralRulesforPotentiometricTitrationofChemicalReagents

GB/T9726-2007GeneralRulesforDeterminationofPotassiumPermanganateSubstancesReducedbyChemicalReagents

GB/T9732-2007Generalmethodforthedeterminationofammoniumwithchemicalreagents

GB/T9730-2007Generalmethodforthedeterminationofoxalatewithchemicalreagents

GB/T9724-2007GeneralrulesforthedeterminationofpHvalueofchemicalreagents

GB/T9729-2007Generalmethodforthedeterminationofchlorideinchemicalreagents

GB/T631-2007Amoniaková voda pro chemická činidla

GB/T613-2007Generalmethodfordeterminationofspecificopticalpower(specificopticalrotation)ofchemicalreagents

GB/T638-2007Chemické činidlo chlorid cínatý dihydrát (Ⅱ) (chlorid cínatý)

GB/T6685-2007chemické činidlo hydroxylaminchlorid (hydroxylaminhydrochlorid)

GB/T625-2007chemické činidlo kyselina sírová

GB/T676-2007 Chemické činidlo Kyselina octová (kyselina ledová)

GB/T9731-2007ChemicalReagentGeneralMethodforDeterminationofSulfurCompounds

GB/T1272-2007Chemické činidlo Jodid draselný

GB/T9727-2007Generalmethodforthedeterminationofphosphateinchemicalreagents

GB/T10726-2007Generalmethodforthedeterminationofmetalimpuritiesbychemicalreagentsolventextraction-atomicabsorptionspectrometry

GB/T9723-2007GeneralRulesofFlameAtomicAbsorptionSpectrometryforChemicalReagents

GB/T670-2007Chemické činidlo Dusičnan stříbrný

GB/T12589-2007Chemické činidloEthylacetát

GB/T665-2007 Chemické činidlo Bezvodý Síran měďnatý (Ⅱ) (Síran měďnatý)

GB/T9728-2007GeneralMethodforDeterminationofSulfateinChemicalReagents

GB/T633-1994chemická činidla dusitan sodný

GB/T650-1993chemické činidlo bromičnan draselný

GB/T1279-2008chemické činidlo síranoželeznatý dekahydrát (Ⅲ)Amonium

GB/T2304-2008chemické činidlo arsen-mrznoucí zinkové částice

GB/T9734-2008chemicalreagentaluminumdeterminationgeneralmethod

GB/T9855-2008 chemické činidlo kyselina citrónová monohydrát (kyselina citrónová)

GB/T696-2008 chemické činidlo močovina (močovina)

GB/T660-1992chemické činidlo amoniumthiokyanát

GB/T1291-2008chemicalreagentpotassiumhydrogenphthalate

GB/T10705-2008 Chemické činidlo dihydrát kyseliny 5-sulfosalicylové (kyselina 5-sulfosalicylová)

GB/T9854-2008 Chemické činidlo dihydrát kyseliny šťavelové (kyselina šťavelová)

GB/T610-2008chemicalreagentgeneralmethodfordeterminationofarsenic

GB/T1273-2008chemické činidlo hexakyanoželezitan draselný (Ⅱ) trihydrát (ferokyanid draselný)

GB/T9742-2008Generalmethodfordeterminationofsilicateinchemicalreagents

GB/T9741-2008Generalmethodfordeterminationofignitionresiduesinchemicalreagents

GB/T9737-2008GeneralRulesfortheDeterminationofEasilyCarbonizedSubstancesinChemicalReagents

GB/T9740-2008GeneralMethodforDeterminationofEvaporationResiduesinChemicalReagents

GB/T632-2008Chemické činidloTetraboritan sodnýDekahydrát (tetraboritan sodný)

GB/T2306-2008chemické činidlohydroxid draselný

GB/T639-2008chemicalreagentanhydroussodiumcarbonate

GB/T15894-2008Chemické činidlopetrolether

GB/T1292-2008 Chemické činidlo octan amonný

GB/T686-2008 Chemické činidlo aceton

GB/T690-2008 chemické činidlo benzen

GB/T1294-2008 chemické činidlo kyselina L(+)-vinná

GB/T9733-2008chemicalreagentcarbonylcompounddeterminationgeneralmethod

GB/T9735-2008Generalmethodforthedeterminationofheavymetalsinchemicalreagents

GB/T9736-2008Generalmethodforthedeterminationofacidityandalkalinityofchemicalreagents

GB/T9738-2008Generalmethodfordeterminationofwater-insolublematterinchemicalreagents

GB/T15355-2008 Chemické činidlo hexahydrát chloridu niklu (chlorid niklu)

GB/T643-2008ChemicalreagenthighmanganesePotassiumacid

GB/T3914-2008Chemicalreagentanodicstrippingvoltammetrygeneralrules

GB/T12590-2008 Chemické činidlo-butanol

GB/T9853-2008 Chemické činidlo bezvodý síran sodný

GB/T667-1995 Chemické činidlo dusičnan zinečnatý hexahydrát (dusičnan zinečnatý)

GB/T669-1994 Chemie Činidlo dusičnan strontnatý

GB/T685-1993chemické činidlo roztok formaldehydu

GB/T691-1994 chemické činidloanilin

GB/T693-1996chemistry Reagenty octan sodný trihydrát (octan sodný)

GB/T694-1995chemické činidlo bezvodý octan sodný

GB/T11547-2008plasticliquidchemicalreagentresistancedetermination

GB/T23942-2009ChemicalReagentGeneralPrinciplesofInductivelyCoupledPlasmaAtomicEmissionSpectrometry

GB/T657-2011Chemické činidloTetrahydrát molybdenanu amonného (molybdenan amonný)

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GB/T659-2011chemické činidlo dusičnan amonný

GB/T1281-2011 chemické činidlo brom

GB/T623-2011chemické činidlo kyselina chloristá

GB/T644-2011chemické činidlo hexakyanoželezitan draselný (Ⅲ) kyanoželeznatan draselný (železoželezitan draselný)

GB/T661-2011chemické činidlo hexahydrát síranu železnatého (Ⅱ)Amonium (síran amonnoželeznatý)

GB/T646-2011chemické činidlo chlorid draselný

GB/T664-2011 chemické činidlo síran železnatý heptahydrát (síran železnatý)

GB/T620-2011 chemické činidlo kyselina fluorovodíková

GB/T688-2011chemické činidlo chlorid uhličitý

GB/T647-2011Chemické činidlo dusičnan draselný

GB/T636-2011Chemické činidlo dusičnan sodný

GB/T677-2011Chemické činidlo acetanhydrid

GB/T666-2011Chemické činidlo heptahydrát síranu zinečnatého (síran zinečnatý)

GB/T1271-2011Chemické činidlo fluorid draselný dihydrát (fluorid draselný)

GB/T641-2011Chemické činidloperoxodisíran draselný (peroxodisíran draselný)

GB/T655-2011chemické činidlo persíran amonný

GB/T15354-2011chemické činidlo tributylfosfát

GB/T645-2011chemické činidlo chlorečnan draselný

GB/T653-2011chemické činidlo dusičnan barnatý

GB/T628-2011 chemické činidlo kyselina boritá

GB/T687-2011chemické činidlo glycerol

GB/T675-2011chemické činidlo jod

GB/T651-2011chemické činidlo jodičnan draselný

GB/T1274-2011Chemicalreagentpotassiumdihydrogenphosphate

GB/T648-2011Chemické činidlo thiokyanát draselný

GB/T1288-2011Chemicalreagentpotassiumsodiumtartratetetrahydrate(potassiumsodiumtartrate)

GB/T1267-2011chemicalreagentsodiumdihydrogenphosphatedihydrate(sodiumdihydrogenphosphate)

GB/T654-2011chemické činidlo uhličitan barnatý

GB/T1270-1996chemické činidlo chlorid kobaltnatý hexahydrát (chlorid kobaltnatý)

GB/T1278-1994chemické činidlo amoniumbifluorid

GB/T1282-1996 Chemické činidlo kyselina fosforečná

GB/T1285-1994Chemické činidlo chlorid kademnatý

GB/T1289-1994 Chemické činidlo šťavelan sodný

GB/T1396-1993chemické činidlo síran amonný

GB/T1397-1995chemické činidlo uhličitan draselný

GB/T1400-1993chemické činidlo hexamethylentetramin

GB/T13353-1992Determinationoftheresistanceofadhesivestochemicalreagents.MetalsandmetalsTitle:

Název založený na obsahu

Standardní látka, standardní roztok, standardní roztok nečistot, standardní referenční látka, standardní vzorek, liniové standardní činidlo, indikátorové činidlo, referenční látka, srovnávací činidlo, chemické standardy, chemické standardy, přístrojové standardy, analytická činidla, činidla první třídy, činidla druhé třídy, standardní činidla, standardní činidla, ultraspektrální vysoce čisté pesticidy, ultraspektrální vysoce čisté pesticidy chromatografická čistota, elektronická čistota, ocelové etalonyVzorek, kulovnicový etalonový vzorek, uhelný etalonový vzorek, nebo etalonový vzorek, atd...

Použití založené na označení

Chemická činidla,obecná činidla,analytická činidla,diagnostická činidla,výuková činidla,Experimentální činidla,separační nástroje,pufrovací roztoky,indikátorová činidla,biologická barviva,fotocitlivé materiály,syntetická činidla,meziprodukty,chemická kvalitasurovinaanalýza vody,analytické materiály,rezistence

Tituly založené na zdroji

Dovážená činidla, přírodní výtažky, výtažky, suché prášky, výtažky...

Vlastní titulky

Chemikálie, jemné chemikálie, léčiva, činidla pro studené částice, speciální činidla, činidla první třídy, činidla druhé třídy, činidla třetí třídy, činidla malého rozsahu...

Označení založené na vlastnostech

Anorganická činidla, organická činidla, izotopy a značené sloučeniny, biochemická činidla, aminokyseliny a jejich deriváty, proteiny a peptidy, nukleotidy a jejich deriváty, monosacharidy a polysacharidy, enzymy a koenzymy...

Klasifikační základ

Thecategoriesofchemicalreagentsarebasicallyclassifiedaccordingtotheirpurposeorsubjectmatter.Manynewcategorieshavebeenadded.Germany'sE.Merckcompanyisdividedinto20categoriesand88sub-categories.AmericanBaker(J.T.Baker)companyhas75majorcategoriesand124sub-categories.Withthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology,thevarietyofchemicalreagentsisbecomingmoreandmorediverse,andthetrendofcategorydivisionisgettingmoreandmoredetailed,andithasreachedtheserializationandmatchingofvarieties.

QualityIndex

Thequalitylevelsofchemicalreagentsarecomplexandtherearemanyvarieties,whichareparticularlyconfusing.Thegeneralconventionalvarieties(class1reagents)areessentialvarieties,andthereare225species,whicharebasicallycomplementaryproducedinmycountry'schemicalreagentbasesinBeijing,Tianjin,Shanghai,Xi'an,Chengdu,Guangzhou,andShenyang.TypeIIreagentsareusedinalmostallfields,andtheyarealsonecessaryvarietiesformanufacturers.Thereareabout1800-2000varieties.Suchreagentsareinlargedemandandwidelyused.Thereareabout3000-6000varietiesofthethreetypesofreagents,andmostoftheirapplicationfieldsarerelatedtothenationaleconomyandpeople'slivelihood,suchaschemical,metallurgy,electricpower,food,medicineandhealthandotherindustriesthatarespecificallyusedinindustryreagents.

Inmycountry,thereare225kindsofchemicalreagentsrepresentedbythreegrades:premiumgrade,analyticalgrade,andchemicalgrade,accordingtothenationalstandardsofthePeople’sRepublicofChinaandthestandardsissuedbytheformerMinistryofChemicalIndustry.These225kindsofchemicalreagents,intheformofstandards,stipulatethebasisofthecontentofchemicalreagentsinourcountry.Thecontentdeterminationofotherchemicalsisbasedonthis,andthecontentisdeterminedbymeasurement.Therefore,thequalityofthesechemicalreagentsisveryimportant.Atthesametime,these225chemicalreagentshavebecomebasicvarietiesduetotheirextremelywideuse.These225specieshavebeenmarkedinthecatalogofchemicalreagents.Inaddition,therearespecialreagents,theproductionvolumeisverysmall,almoston-demandproduction,thequantityisgenerallydesignatedbytheuser.

Běžné úrovně kvality

Excellentgradepure(GR,greenlabel):highcontentofmaincomponents,highpurity,suitableforpreciseanalysisandresearchwork,andsomecanbeusedasbenchmarkssubstance.

Analyticalpurity(AR,redlabel):highcontentofmaincomponents,highpurity,lowinterferenceimpurities,suitableforindustrialanalysisandchemicalexperiments.EquivalenttoforeignACSlevel(Americká chemická společnoststandard)

Chemicalpurity(CP,bluelabel):highcontentofmaincomponents,highpurity,presenceofinterferingimpurities,suitableforchemicalexperimentsandsyntheticpreparation.

Experimentalpure(LR,yellowlabel):highcontentofmaincomponents,poorpurity,nochoiceofimpuritycontent,onlysuitableforgeneralchemicalexperimentsandsyntheticpreparation.

Indikátory a skvrny (IDneboSR,fialový štítek):vyžadují jednoznačnou citlivost.

Designatedlevel(ZD):Chemicalreagentscustomizedforspecificusersinaccordancewiththequalitycontrolindicatorsrequiredbyusers.

Electronicpure(MOS):suitablefortheproductionofelectronicproducts,withextremelylowelectricalimpuritycontent.

Ekvivalentní činidla (3N, 4N, 5N): obsah hlavní součásti je 99,9 %, 99,99 %, 99,999 % nebo více.

Spektrální čistota: čistota hlavních součástí je 99,99 %

Popis úrovně:

Vyšší čistota – GR

MicroorganismUse—FMB

AnalysisČistý-AR

Průmyslový-TECH

ChemicalČistý—CP

Stáž—PRACT

Experimentální úroveň – LR

Prosyntéza—FS

Biochemickégrade—před naším letopočtem

Indikátor—IND

HighperformanceKapalinová chromatografie—HPLC

Plynová chromatografie—GC

Biologické barvení — BS

Kapalinová chromatografie—LC

Základní úroveň – PT

ChromatographyUse—FCP

AtomicAbsorption—AAS

Tenkovrstvá chromatografie—TLC

Infraredabsorption—IR

SpectrumČistý—SP

NuclearMagneticResonance—NMR

SpectroscopyČistý—UV

Fluorescenceanalysis—FIA

Syntéza — SYN

Inorganicanalyticalreagentsarecommonlyusedinorganicchemicalsforchemicalanalysis.Itspurityishigherthanthatofindustrialproducts,withlessimpurities.

Organicreagentsforinorganicanalysisarespecialorganiccompoundssuchasprecipitationagents,extractants,chelatingagentsandindicatorsforthedetermination,separationandenrichmentofelementsintheanalysisofinorganicsubstances,Ratherthangeneralsolvents,organicacidsandorganicbases.Theseorganicreagentsmusthavegoodsensitivityandselectivity.Withthedevelopmentofanalyticalchemistryandchemicalindustry,suchreagentswithbettersensitivityandselectivitywillbedeveloped,suchasthosethathavecomplexingabilityforsomemetals(suchasalkalimetals,alkalineearthmetals)andammoniumionssince1967.ThisisthecasewithCrownethercompounds.

Primarystandardsarecompoundswithhighpurity,lessimpurities,goodstabilityandconstantchemicalcomposition.Inthereferencereagents,thereareclassificationssuchasvolumetricanalysis,pHmeasurement,andcalorificvaluemeasurement.Eachcategoryisdividedintothefirstbenchmarkandtheworkingbenchmark.AllthefirstbenchmarksmustbeverifiedbytheNationalAcademyofMetrology,andtheproductionunitusesthefirstbenchmarkasthemeasurementstandardforworkbenchmarkproducts.Thebenchmarkreagentsforcommercialoperationsmainlyrefertothevolumetricanalysisworkbenchmarksinthevolumetricanalysiscategory[contentrangeis99.95%to100.05%(weighttitration)].Generallyusedtocalibratethetitrant.

Standardsubstanceisachemicalsubstanceusedforcomparisoninchemicalanalysisandinstrumentanalysis,orachemicalusedtocalibrateaninstrument.Itschemicalcomposition,content,physicalandchemicalpropertiesandimpuritiesmustbeknown,andmeettheregulationsorberecognized.

ČinidloMikroanalytické činidlo (mikroanalytické činidlo) je vhodné pro stanovení látky, povolené množství je pouze konstantně procenta (hmotnost je asi 1~15 mg, objem je asi 0,01~2 ml) Činidla pro mikroanalýzu.

Organicanalyticalstandardsarechemicalreagentsusedforcomparisonwhendeterminingthecompositionandstructureoforganiccompounds.Itscompositionmustbeaccuratelyknown.Itcanalsobeusedformicroanalysis.

Pesticideanalyticalstandards(Pesticideanalyticalstandards)aresuitableforuseingaschromatographytoanalyzepesticidesordeterminepesticideresiduesascomparisonitems.Itscontentisrequiredtobeprecise.Therearesolutionspreparedfromatraceamountofasinglepesticide,andtherearealsomixedsolutionspreparedfrommultiplepesticides.

Refractiveindexliquid(Refractiveindexliquid)isahigh-puritystableliquidwithaknownrefractiveindex,usedtodeterminetherefractiveindexofcrystallinesubstancesandminerals.Therefractiveindexismarkedontheoutsideofeachpackage.

Normalsolutionisanaqueoussolutioncontainingonegramequivalentofsoluteinoneliterofsolution,thatis,asolutionwithaconcentrationof1N.IndikátorIndikátor(Indikátor)isasubstancethatcanchangeitscolorundertheinfluenceofthepresenceofcertainsubstances.Itismainlyusedtoindicatetheendpointoftitrationinvolumetricanalysis.Generallycanbedividedintoacid-baseindicator,redoxindicator,adsorptionindicatorandsoon.Inadditiontoanalysis,theindicatorcanalsobeusedtotestthepresenceofcertainharmfulandtoxicsubstancesingasesorsolutions.

Testpaperisasmalldrypieceofpapersoakedinanindicatororreagentsolution.Itisusedtotestthepresenceofacertaincompound,elementorioninthesolution.Itisalsousedformedicaldiagnosis.Instrumentalanalyticalreagents

Instrumentalanalyticalreagentsarereagentsusedintheprocessofsampleanalysisusingspecialinstrumentsdesignedaccordingtotheprinciplesofphysics,chemistryorphysicalchemistry.Atomikabsorpční spektroskopiestandards

Atomikabsorpční spektroskopiestandardsareusedasstandardreagentswhenanalyzingsamplesbyatomicabsorptionspectroscopy.

Forchromatographyreagentsforchromatographyrefertoreagentsandmaterialsusedingaschromatography,liquidchromatography,gas-liquidchromatography,thin-layerchromatography,columnchromatographyandotheranalyticalmethods.Therearestationaryliquids,Supports,solvents,etc.

Forelectronmikroskopie(Forelectronmikroskopie)reagentsarefixatives,embeddingagents,stainsandotherreagentsusedinthefieldsofbiology,medicine,etc.,whenelectronmicroscopesareusedforresearchwork.

SolventforNMRspectroscopy(SolventforNMRspectroscopy)ismainlyadeuteratedsolvent(alsocalledheavyhydrogenreagentordeuteratedreagent),whichisthehydrogenintheorganicsolventstructureisdeuterated(heavyHydrogen)replacedbythesolvent.Innuclearmagneticresonanceanalysis,thedeuteratedsolventmaynotshowpeaks,anditwillnotinterferewiththehydrogenspectrumanalysisofthesample.

Forpolarography(Forpolarography)reagentsrefertothereagentsneededforquantitativeandqualitativeanalysisbypolarography.

SpectralpuritySpectrographyreagentsusuallyrefertoreagentswithhigherpuritythathavebeenanalyzedbyemissionspectroscopy.

Spectrophotometricpurereagentreferstothesolutionusedwhenspectrophotometricanalysisisused.Ithasacertainwavelengthtransmittanceandisusedforqualitativeandquantitativeanalysis.

Biochemická činidlaBiochemická činidlarefertobiologicalmaterialsororganiccompoundsrelatedtolifescienceresearch,aswellasreagentsforclinicaldiagnosisandmedicalresearch.Duetothewiderangeandrapiddevelopmentoflifesciences,thiskindofreagentshasawidevarietyandcomplexproperties.

Jiné úrovně

Inaddition,itisstilldividedintothefollowingmorethan20levels.

AASatomicabsorptionspectroscopy,před naším letopočtembiochemicalreagents,BPBritishPharmacopoeia,BRbiologicalreagents,BSbiologicalstains,CRchemicalreagents,EPultra-pure,FCPchromatography,FMPmicroscopy,FSsynthesis,GCgaschromatography,GRsuperiorgradepurereagent,HPLChighpressureliquidchromatography,IDindicator,IRinfraredabsorptionspectrum,MARtraceanalysisreagent,NMRnuclearmagneticresonancespectroscopy,OASorganicanalysisstandard,PAanalysis,Praxepractice,PTstandardReagents,Purissspecialpure,Purumpure,SPspectralpure,Techindustrialuse,TLCthinlayerchromatography,NAHORUultra-pure,USPUnitedStatesPharmacopoeia,UVultravioletspectrophotometrypure,JXteachingreagent...MIpharmaceuticalgrade,Iindustrialgrade,FFoodgrade,Mcosmeticgrade,Ssolid,Lliquid,Efineproduct,Ccrudeproduct...

Obviously,thegeneralqualitystandardsofthesechemicalreagentsaredividedintotheabove-mentionedqualitylevels,whichisfarfrombeingsatisfied.Researchandproductionneeds.

Validní období chemických činidel

Chemicalreagentsareaffectedbyexternalfactorssuchastemperature,lightirradiation,airandwaterduringstorage,transportationandsales,andarepronetodeliquescent,Physicalandchemicalchangessuchasmycin,discoloration,polymerization,oxidation,volatilization,sublimationanddecompositionmakeitinvalidandunusable.Therefore,itisnecessarytoadoptreasonablepackaging,appropriatestorageconditionsandtransportationmethodstoensurethatthechemicalreagentsdonotdeteriorateduringstorage,transportationandsales.Somespecialrequirementsforstorageandtransportationshouldbehandledinaccordancewithspecialrequirements.Somechemicalreagentshaveacertainshelflife,sobecarefulwhenusingthem.

Thevalidityperiodofchemicalreagentsvariesgreatlywiththechemicalpropertiesofchemicals.Undernormalcircumstances,chemicallystablesubstanceshavealongershelflifeandsimplerstorageconditions.

Zásady hodnocení stability

Forpreliminaryjudgmentofthestabilityofasubstance,thefollowingprinciplescanbefollowed:

Inorganiccompounds,aslongastheyareproperlystored,thepackagingisintact,Canbeusedforalongtime.However,thosesubstancesthatareeasilyoxidizedanddeliquescentcanonlybestoredforashortperiodoftime(1to5years)underdark,cool,anddryconditions,dependingonwhetherthepackagingandstorageconditionscomplywiththeregulations.

Organiclow-molecular-weightcompoundsaregenerallymorevolatile,andthepackaginghasbetterairtightnessandcanbestoredforalongtime.Butitiseasytobeoxidized,decomposedbyheat,easytopolymerize,photosensitivesubstances,etc.

Organické polymery, zejména životní materiály, jako jsou půdy, polysacharidy, proteiny, enzymy, peptidy atd., jsou mimořádně náchylné k účinkům mikroorganismů, teplotě a světlu a ztrácejí svou aktivitu nebo se zhoršují. Proto musí být chlazeny (zmraženy) a konzervovány.

Inprinciple,referencematerials,referencematerialsandhigh-puritymaterialsshouldbestoredinstrictaccordancewiththepreservationregulationstoensurethatthepackagingisintact,avoidbeingaffectedbythechemicalenvironment,andthestoragetimeshouldnotbetoolong.Ingeneral,thereferencesubstancemustbeusedwithinthevalidityperiod.

Thestabilityofmostchemicalsisstillrelativelygood,andthespecificconditionsshouldbedeterminedbyactualuserequirements.Iftheanalysisdataisgenerallyunderstood,ortheanalysisresultsdonothavespecificandaccuraterequirements,suchasgeneralteachingexperiments,generalrequirementscanbemadeforthequalitylevelofchemicalreagents.However,thefactorytestdataisusedtoguideproduction,andthequalityindicatorsofchemicalreagentsmustnotbeambiguous.Asforthechemicalreagentsusedingeneralsyntheticpreparation,inmostcases,theuseofindustrial-gradechemicalreagentsissufficient.However,thesyntheticpreparationofresearch-typeandcertainspecialchemicals,insomecases,hasverystrictrequirementsonthequalityofrawmaterialsandrequiresstrictcontrol.

Inactualuse,peoplearealwaysaccustomedtojudgingtheeffectivenessofchemicalreagentsbythedateofproduction.Infact,itisridiculous.Forexample,inaninstitutionofhigherlearning,wehaveseenwarehousemanagerscleanoutallchemicalreagentsthathavebeenoutofthefactoryformorethan2years,andpreparethemfordestruction.Thereasonisthattheyhaveexpired.Nottomentionthehugewasteoffunds,thedestructionplanofthevariouschemicalhazardousmaterialsaloneisenoughtobeprohibitive.What'smore,commercialcompaniesarenotallowedtobuy,topreventbusinessesfrom"deceivingpeople",thesituationislamentable,andthesituationissad!Later,itissaidthattheselargequantitiesofchemicalreagentswere"deeplydugandburied".

Inshort,theeffectivenessofchemicalreagentsmustfirstbejudgedbasedonthephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofthechemicalreagentsthemselves,andthenthestorageconditionsofthechemicalreagentsshouldbeobservedvisually,andthenwhethertheycanbeusedaccordingtospecificneedsTheconclusion.

Klasifikace chemických činidel

Aktuální situace v mé zemi

Thereasonableclassificationofchemicalreagentsisfarfrommeetingtheneedsofscientificresearchandproductionduetothedraftingofnationalstandards,anditisseriousIthinderstheproductionofchemicalreagentsinmycountry.Relyingontheexisting227nationalstandardsandindustrystandardsalone,itisdifficulttogivesuchalargenumberofchemicalreagentstoaqualitystandard;itisimpossibleforustogiveallchemicalsanationalqualitystandard,eventomentionWhenitcomestoreagents,thefirstthingpeoplethinkofiswhetheritisanalyticallypureorchemicallypure.Evenwhenpeoplebuy,nomatterwhatthepurposeis,theydon’tbuynon-analyticalreagents.Thisisalsothereasonwhymanyvarietiesthatdonothavenationalstandards,butinexplicablyandbaselesslyendowproductswitharedARlabel.Itisalsobecauseinactualuse,inmanycases,thetrue"analyticalpurity"isnotrequired,andillegalmanufacturersdeliberatelylabeltheindustrialproductswith"analyticalpurity"toconfusethepuritylevel.Althoughqualityaccidentswillnotoccurinmostcases,butHowever,itseriouslyinterfereswiththeproductionanduseofreal"standardmaterialsandanalyticalgrades".

Furthermore,sincethenumberofconventionalchemicalsishuge,butthereareonly225varietiesclassifiedassuperiorgrade,analyticalgradeorchemicalgrade,then,whatelseisnecessary!

Rozdíl mezi mou zemí a světem

Internationally,thereisanincreasingtrendtolabelthegradeandpurityofchemicalreagentsaccordingtothemaincontentandphysicalconstantsofchemicals.Itisgenerallybelievedthatwhenthemaincontent,boilingpoint,meltingpoint,density,refractiveindex,andevenultraviolet,infrared,andnuclearmagneticspectraareallknown,thepurityandscopeofapplicationofasubstancecanbecompletelydetermined.Thisisthemaindifferencebetweenthelabelcontentofchemicalreagentsinmycountryandthatofforeignchemicalreagentlabels.

Actually,theso-calledchemicalreagentsarethemedicamentsusedinchemicalexperiments;thatis,thechemicalmedicamentsneededinchemicalexperiments.Theclassificationofchemicalpurityandgradecanbedeterminedaccordingtothequalitystandardsandscopeofapplicationofchemicalagents.

Klasifikace

Accordingtothis,thefirstlevelofchemicalreagentsisdividedintofourcategories:standardreagents,biochemicalreagents,electronicreagents,andexperimentalreagents.

Theclassificationprincipleoflevel1standardnotonlyclarifiesthequalitystandard,butalsotakesintoaccountthescopeofapplicationofthechemicalreagent.

Thelevel2standardisafurtherdivisionbasedonthelevel1classification.Itisafurtherclarificationandlimitationofthelevel1standard.

tothreecriteriaarecomparedwiththeoriginaloldstandard,ormoreaccuratedeterminationofthespecifiedpurposes.

intheLevel1or2isdetermined,aqualityindicatorofthechemicalagent,andthepurposeofthisapplicationthequalityindicatorscanbeappliedalsodetermined.

SoIproposewillbepublishedasananalyticalexaminationofthecriteriaandstandards"standardreagent"qualitystandardsgiveclearnationalstandards.Theremaining"biochemicalreagents,electronicreagents,laboratoryreagents"qualityindicatorscanfollowcorporatestandards,orupdatetheincreasinglytechnologicalrequirementsofdiscretionbythemarket,sothatwechemicalsindustrywillbeabletogetoutoftheoriginal"deadset"ofoldtraditions,developmentboomingup!

standardreagentsBZ:inaccordancewithinternationalnormsandtechnicalrequirementsinordertoidentifyasastandardsubstanceanalysisarbitration.

BiochemickésSH:preparationbiochemistryandbiochemicalsynthesis.

electrophilesDZ:generallyreferstothechemicalsandmaterialsusedinelectronicinformationindustry,includingintegratedcircuitsanddiscretedeviceschemicals,theprintedcircuitboardsupportingchemicals,chemicalsandsurfacemountdisplaychemicalsandotherdevices.

ReagentsSY:accordingtothe"maincontent"determined"syntheticreagent."Reagentsusedinthesyntheticchemistrylaboratorypreparation,separationandpurification,tomeetthegeneralrequirementsofsynthesisreagents.

tagschemicals

QualityIndexchemicalsdeterminestheapplicablerangeofchemicalreagents,soIrecommend,shouldannouncetheapprovalofa"chemicalreagentlabel"nationalstandard,thestandardagivenchemicalreagentsandstandardizedqualityindicatorsdescribethesystemwillregulatetheproductionofchemicalreagents,rationaluseofgreatsignificance.

"Chemical Reagentstag" nesoucí informace:

registeredtrademark:clearlylabeledregisteredtrademarksofthemanufacturers.

QualityStandard:QualityStandardsimultaneouslydisplaycolorandpinyincodesintwoways.Colordisplayareaasalowerlabelmanufacturerinformationregion;pinyincodes(suchasBZ,SH,DZ,SY)indicatedinaprominentposition.

čínštinanameandtype:ProductnamečínštinaChemicalSocietyin1982published"inorganicchemicalnomenclaturesystems,""organicchemicalsnomenclaturesystem"asthemainbasis,takingintoaccountthelong-termuseofthecommonname,Productname.Andcanbedescribedasaccuratelyaspossiblegivenpatternsordosageofthechemicalagent,forexample:anaqueousalcoholsolution,powder,blocks,sticks,paste,suchasa200meshsizeoreventhelike.

AngličtinaName:NametoINAHORUAC1982Nianpublished"inorganicchemicalnomenclaturesystems,""organicchemicalsnomenclaturesystem"asthemainbasis,takingintoaccountthecommonname,tradename,long-termuse.

CASAccessionNumber:skládá se z 9 číslic v hranatých závorkách, pomlčka rozdělená na tři části, např. [58-08-2]CASRregistrační číslo je kofein.

=molecularformula:MolecularSimplecorrectlywritten,i.e.,theamountofmolecularformulashown,inaccordancewiththe1968publicationoftheinternationalatomicaccuratelycalculatethemolecularweight.TheNaOH=40.10.

content:percentagecontentbymassofthechemicalagentinaccordancewiththemethodspecifiedmolecularnationalstandardsorcorporatestandard,determined.The99.9%.

Množství v balení: množství pevných látek v balení je dáno hmotností chemického prostředku, jako je 1 g, 5 g, 10 g, 25 g, 100 g, 250 g, 500 g, 1 000 g.

Appearance:concise,accuratetermtodescribethephysicalstateofthecolorofthechemicalagent,odor,andotherphysicalstate.

fyzikální konstanty: postupně v pořadí podle měřených fyzikálních konstant "bod tání, bod varu, hustota, viskozita, optická rotace, koeficient lomu, rozpustnost" a podobně.

kde spektrum: a"UV,IR,NMR"spektroskopie"další charakteristické absorpce vrcholí.

interferingimpurities:primarilygivenmasspercentageofimpurities,inparticularthemaininterferenceaccuratemeasuredvalueofthemasspercentageofimpurities.

DGRNo:hazardousgoodsmustbemarkedDGRnumber.Productionbatch:givenproductionlotinordertofacilitatetraceability.

přičemž zahraniční vývoj chemických činidel

tocompletedevelopment,alternatedirectionsreagentandancillaryservices

ancillarybenefits,likeimproveduserservice.Onforeignmarkets,almostindustrial,routineexperimentationandtestingprojectsinagriculture,health,environmentalprotection,scientificresearch,teaching,therearesetsofteststrip,completesolution,pre-filledcolumn,paintedsheets,variousreferencestandardandspecialeasytousetoolsandsmallequipment.Chemicalcompositionforeignmarketshasspecificreagents,suchasbasicmodulepeptide:p-aminoacids,FMOs(fluorenylmethoxycarbonylgroupZhuoyl)-aminoacidsandotheraminoacidsreagents;OrganicSynthesisbasicmodules:chloride,alcohol ,phenols,aldehydes,amines,carboxylicacids,ketones,andthelike;andreagentscustomizedaccordingtouserrequirements.MostReagentCompany,fortheconvenienceofusers,butalsosupportingsalesoflaboratoryinstrumentsoftenusedinsmall-scale,securesupplies,variousmapsdata(chemicalstructure,infrared,ultraviolet,emissionspectroscopy,chromatography,etc.),compoundsafetydata,variousdataanalysisandothertestingmethods,ofwhichaconsiderableportionispublishedonCD-Rom.

Manyagentsnotonlyselltangibleproducts,butalsotechnicalconsultingbusiness,providingawiderangeoftechnicalservices,suchas:analysisandtesting,intermediatescale-up,processdesignproducts,developenvironmentalprotectionprograms.

attachedgreatimportancetoscientificresearchanddevelopment

Thereagentscompanyhasitsownresearchanddevelopmentdepartment,mostcompaniesalsodevelopwithuniversities,researchinstitutes,individualscientistsorotherwell-knowncompanies,andevenmergersthecompanyhassometechnicalexpertise,inordertoenhancethecompany'sdevelopmentandcompetitiveness.Theyhesitatetoinvestheavilyinresearchanddevelopment,scienceandtechnologyinordertosuddenlyflyfierce,intothefiercecompetitioninthemarketdominantposition.ToMerckKGaA,forexample,their1994-Foreachyearbetween1998andfundsscientificresearchanddevelopmentinvestmentaccountedfortheproportionofsaleswere9.56%,9.O%,8.18%,9.76%and10.05%,overthesameperiod, Merck(Darm.) takto: 43,52 %, 43,94 %, 45,29 %, 47,0 % a 46,95 %.

výroba, řízení a technologický pokrok

Mostofthecompany'sfactory,haveachievedISO9001,ISO9002,GMPorFDAqualitymanagementcertification.On-siteproductionprocess,industrialhygieneandenvironmentalprotectionwidespreadattention.Inrecentyears,withthecategoryofvarietiessupplymarketcontinuestoexpand,manyofthemorecomplextechnologyhasbeenwidelyadopted.Applicationofcomputer-aidedproduction,technology,businessmanagement,hasbeenverycommon.MostReagentCompany,arebuiltonitsownInternetsite,inadditiontoreportedcompanyhistory,institutionalstructure,businessscope,catalogandothervarieties,mainlyonlineshopping,andconstantly(aboutaweek)postedoperatingstatusofthecompany,technicalachievements,internationalcooperation,planningguidelinesandotherinformation.TheirannualfixedassetinvestmentinhugenumbertoMerckKGaA,forexample,from1994-1998theproportionofinvestmentinfixedassetssalesaccountedfor7.2%,8.4%,7.4%,6.7%,7.7%(eg:1998to624millionmarks,equivalenttoRMB2.8billionyuan).

alianční spolupráce, společná operace je trendem

varietycategoriesofchemicalagentsisextremelycomplicated,extensiveserviceside,involvingalmostalltheeconomicandtechnologicalfields,anycompany,wantstosweepreagentsallbusinessisimpossible,andreagentsalesischaracterizedbybiggerandmoreandmorevarietiesofbusiness,increasesalesopportunities,thegreaterthelikelihoodofthatisprofit.So,20yearsago,thereisatrendofsmallcompaniesmoveclosertolargecompanies,smallcompaniesorlargecorporatemergersofmutualco-operation.Headabletosupplytheworld'slargestspeciesistheSigma-A1drichcompany,theyadvantageinthevarietyisalmostirreplaceable,thisisindeedtheresultofajointoperation.

Thenewtrendinthecountrythroughtheestablishmentofe-commerceplatformtoachieveintegration,alliances,jointventureseffects,likeAvatar,chemistry,čínštinaagentsspecializeine-commercetradingplatformsuchreagentshasoccurred,thiswouldbeagoodintegrationofthedomesticagentresources.Becauseitconformstothedevelopmentofonlinesalesmodel,webelievethiswillbeamajortrendinthefuturereagentsbusiness.

bezpečné používání chemických činidel

1.Chemické látky hořlavé

GeneralChemicalsflashpointbelow25℃flammablechemicalagentsincluded,theyaremostlyhighlyvolatileliquids,incaseoffiretoburn.Thelowertheflashpoint,themoreflammable.Commonflashpointpetroleumopened,ethylcondensateethane,diethylether,gasoline,twocarbonizedcarbon,withalkylenepropionate,benzene,ethylacetate,methylacetateinthefollowingyeast-4℃.

mustnotbeusedeasilywhenusingbrightfirealkenylChemicals.Heatcannotbedirectlyheatedbyaheater,generallydonothavewaterbath,suchchemicalagentsshouldbestoredinthecoolair,intherefrigerator,therefrigeratormustbeexplosionproof,therehadbeenstoredinaconventionalrefrigeratoretherandfire,accidentburnedtheentirelaboratory,wheretheuseofsuchalargenumberofchemicalreagents,looktomaintaingoodventilation,theuseofelectricalappliancesmustbeexplosion-proofelectricalequipment,thesitemustnothaveopenflames.

highlyflammablereagentsduringcombustioncanleadtoanexplosion,chemicalreagents,suchassomesolid:nitrocellulose,picricacid,trinitrotoluene,trinitrobenzene,oroverlappingazidecompound,saltHuoandsoon,frieditselfisburning,whenexposedtoheatorflame,whichburnseasilyordecomposition,explosion,itmustnotbeheateddirectlyintheuseofthesechemicals,shouldalsopayattentionsurroundingtheuseofthesechemicalsdonothaveanopenflame.

Anothertypeofsolidchemicalreagents,waterviolentreactioncanoccur,andemitalotofheat,cancauseanexplosion.Suchchemicalagentsaremetalpotassium,sodium,lithium,calcium,aluminumhydride,calciumcarbideandthelike,intheuseofthesechemicalagentsmustavoidtheirdirectcontactwithwater.

andsomesolidoncontactwithachemicalagentastrongoxidationcanoccur.Thephosphorus;somecontactwithanoxidizingagentorheatintheair,bytheimpactorfrictioncancauseabruptcombustionorexplosion.Thephosphorussulfide,redphosphorusmagnesium,zinc,aluminum,Rong,brainandthelikefall,whenusingthesechemicalagents,wemustpayattentionnottoohighambienttemperature(typicallynotmorethan30℃,preferably20℃orless)Avoidcontactwithstrongoxidizingagents.

Inthelaboratorypersonnelusingflammablechemicals,oughttowearthenecessaryprotectiveequipment,itisbesttowearprotectiveglasses.

2.Toxické chemikálie

Generalchemicalsaretoxictohumans,mustbeavoidedwhenusingthelargenumberofinhalation,theagentperformancesAfteruse,towashtheirhands,wash,bath,replacingclothesforinhalationoringestionofsomesmallamountofdeaththatcanpoisonthechemicalagent,theamountofbiologicaltestdeath(LD50)isreferredtoastoxicchemicalagentsat50mg/kgorless,suchas:potassiumcyanide,sodiumcyanideandothercyanide,arsenictrioxideandcertainarsenide,mercurydichloride,mercuryandcertainsalts,sulfate,dimethylandthelike.Whenusingclearperformancechemicals,wemustunderstanditsLD50.Firstaidtreatmentatsomeofthecommonlyusedtoxicchemicalsmustunderstandthesetoxicchemicals,toxicchemicalsmusthaveaspecialpersontokeepstrictcontrolusage.

3. Korozivní chemické látky

anychemicalagentacrosstheskin,mucousmembranes,eyes,respiratoryorgansmustbecleaned,inparticular,haveastrongcorrosivetotheskin,mucousmembranes,eyes,respiratorychemicalagents(whetherliquidorsolid),suchas:avarietyofacidsandbases,phosphorustrichloride,phosphorusoxychloride,bromine,phenol,Tianshuihydrazineandthelike.Butalsotoavoidhittingtheskin,mucousmembranes,eyes,respiratory,usebeforeusemustunderstandaidaccesstothesetreatmentmethodscorrosivechemicalagents.Usedilutealkalisuchasacidwashing,etc.spilledontheskin .

4.StrongoxidizingChemicals

strongoxidizingchemicalagentsareperoxidecontainingoxyacidorstrongoxidizingpoweranditssalts.Suchas:acidperoxide,Annnitrate,potassiumnitrate,perchloricacidandsaltsthereof,acidandsaltsthereofcomplexweight,permanganicacidanditssalts,peroxyacid,peraceticacid,sweetwine,phosphoruspentoxideandthelike.Strongoxidizingchemicalagentsunderappropriateconditionscanemitoxygenexplosion,andformexplosivemixtureswithorganicmagnesium,aluminum,zinc,sulfurandothercombustibles,somewatermayexplode,theuseofsuchastrongoxidizingchemicalinreagent,ambienttemperatureisnothigherthan30℃,goodventilationshouldnotbeorganicorreducingsubstanceswiththeuseofcommon(heating).

5.KdyžRadiochemické

Theuseofsuchchemicalagents,theuseofradioactivematerialsaccordingtoacertainmethod,totakeprotectivemeasures.

destilaci a rektifikacichemicals

inthechemicalanalysis,instrumentalanalysis,thepreparationofinorganic,organicsynthesisandotherscientificexperimentareoftenencounteredwithinsufficientpuritychemicalsorbuytherequiredpuritychemicals,whichrequirespurificationofourownexistingchemicalsinthelaboratoryinordertoobtaintherequiredpuritychemicals.Apolloagentwillbesmallseriesfollowingbriefdestilaci a rektifikacimethods.

destilaci a rektifikaci

destilaci a rektifikaciisawidelyusedmethodofpurification,mixingthecomponentsinaccordancewiththeliquidmixturebetweenliquidandvaportheinequalityofpurified,purificationisthefirstchoiceofvolatileandsemi-volatilechemicals.

princip destilace

isseparatedbydistillationfromtheimpuritiescontainedinthechemicalagentvolatileandsemi-volatileimpuritiesandvolatileorsemi-volatileevaporatingbodyTheywillnotbevolatileandlessvolatileimpuritiesleftbehind.Changethesaturationvaporpressureofasubstanceatdifferenttemperaturesisthebasisoftheseparationbydistillation.Generallyspeaking,ifthevaporpressureoftheliquidmixtureoftwocomponentshavingalargedifferenceinthevaporphasecanbemorevolatileandsemi-volatilecomponentsenrichment.Twophases-liquidandvaporphases-canberecoveredseparately,volatileandsemi-volatilecomponentsintheenrichedvaporwithoutvolatilecomponentsareenrichedintheliquidphase.

Inadditiontothehydrocarbonmixtureandafewotherexamples,Raoult'slawandDalton'slawcanbeusedinsystemsoverthemixture,andthemixturesolutionisoftennotdesirabletofollowthevaporphase-phasebehavior.Applicationofthesetwolawscanbeavolatilethanthetwocomponentsofthebinarysystem(aAB):aAB=(YA/YB)/(XA/XB)=P0A/P0Bwherein,YAandYBaretheequilibriumcomponentsaandBinthegasphasemolefraction,XAandXBarethecomponentsaandBintheliquidphaseatequilibriummolefraction,andP0BareP0AvaporpressureofcomponentsaandBatequilibrium,obeysthelawsofRaouilt.WiththeincreaseaAB,alsoincreasesthedegreeofenrichment.

Za druhé, jednoduchá destilace

simpledistillationapparatus,showninFigure-1.Whenaliquidsampleisheatedandconvertedintosteam,whichiscondensedpartbacktotheoriginaldistillationflask,whiletherestiscondensedandtransferredtoacollectionvessel,theformeriscalledrefluxliquid,whichiscalledeffluent.Sincethedistillationiscarriedoutcontinuously,escapeandstoredintheliquidcompositionisgraduallychanging.Asamethodofpurifyinganimpuritychemicalagents,separationonlysimpledistillationboilingpointhasalargedifference,suchastheboilingpointofthemainbodyofthedifferenceisgreaterthan50℃impurities.Toremoveimpuritieshavingaboilingpointoflessthan50deg.]Cwiththemaindifferenceis,willhavetouserectificationmethoddescribedbelow.

simpleatmosphericdistillationunitmainlyconsistsdistillationflask,thermometer,condenser,atrapandaheatingdevicewithasidetubeandothercomponents.Wheninstalled,themercurythermometershouldbeinsertedintotheballpositionlowerthanthesidetube,thesidetubeandacondenserconnectedtothedistillationflaskhorizontal,themouthandthecollectorconnectedtoacondenser(FIG.1).Whenusingadistillationapparatus,distilledaccordingtoboilingpointsoftheselectedtestchemicalheatingmeans:Thedistillationoftheliquidataboilingpointofless80℃,heatedwithhotwaterbath;liquidataboilingpointofabove100deg.]C,asbestosfireorbystraight-lineoilbath;liquidatatemperatureofabove200℃,heatingmetalbath.

distillationataboilingpointofabove150℃liquid,aircondensermaybeused.Inordertosmoothlycarryoutdistillation,andbeforeheating,thezeolitemustbeaddedaftertheliquidintheflaskchargedtotheflask.Becauseoftheverysmoothinnersurfaceoftheflask,andthebumpingpronetooverheating,sothatthedistillationcannotbecarriedoutsmoothly.Whenaddinganewzeolite,etc.mustAftercooledtoroomtemperaturebeforetheliquidwasaddedtotheflasktoavoidtheriskofboilingoccursabruptly.Zeoliteusedonlyonce,whentheliquidiscooled,addedtotheoriginalzeoliteloseseffect,sowhenthedistillationwascontinuedtobeaddedtothenewzeolite.Inatmosphericdistillation,havingaporous,easilycrushed,andthematerialwasdistilleddoesnotcausechemicalreactions,canbeusedasthezeolite.Zeolitesarecommonlycutinto1-2mmpiecesorunglazedclaytiles.

distillationapparatusisinstalled,theheatingcanbegin.Whenthesubstancebeginstoboilthedistillationflask,thetemperaturerisingsharply.Whenthetemperaturerisestotheboilingpointsubstanceweredistilleddown1℃,theintensityofheatingoftheheaterisadjustedtoalevelofadroppersecondeffluent.Inthiscase,theheatingtemperatureofthebathshouldbemaintainedathigherthantheboilingpointofthematerialinthedistillationflask20℃.Higherboilingmaterialdistillation,steamBeforei.e.lessthantheoutersidetubeandrefluxcoolingair,itcannotbedistilledoff.Atthistime,theflamecanbeuniformlyheatedusingamicrotubeofthelowersurfaceside,buttoavoidexcessiveheating,sothatthethermometerdoesnotindicatethecorrectboilingpoint,butalsoontheheatingportionoftheretortwithoutproperinsulation.Inthedistillationoperation,itshouldbenotedthefollowing:

(1)controltheheatingtemperature.Ifaheatingbath,thetemperatureoftheheatingbathshouldbeseveraldegreeshigherthantheboilingpointofthedistillationoftheliquid,otherwiseitisdifficulttobedistilledoutofthedistillate.Themoretheheatingbathtemperaturehigherthantheboilingpointoftheliquidofthedistillation,thedistillationfaster.However,thetemperatureoftheheatingbathcannotbetoohigh,otherwiseitwillleadtoanupperportionoftheretortandacondenservaporpressureaboveatmosphericpressure,anaccidentmayoccur,inparticular,moreparticularattentionduringdistillationlowboilers.Acamel,heatingbathtemperaturenothigherthantheboilingpointof30deg.]Cdistilledmaterial.

(2)distillingthehigh-boilingsubstances,condenseeasilybecause,oftendoesnotreachthevaporsideofthetube,i.e.thedistillationflaskhasbeencondenseddropsbackintothedistillationflask.Therefore,weshoulduseshort-neckedretortortakeinsulationmeasurestoensurethesmoothprogressofdistillation.

(3)priortothedistillation,thedistillationmustunderstandthechemicalagentandtheboilingpointandsaturatedvaporpressureimpurities,todeterminewhen(i.e.,atwhattemperature)tocollectpurechemicalagent.

(4) musí být v destilační baňce se spodním dnem.

aboilingpointof40-150deg.]CmaybeemployedChemicalssimpledistillationundernormalpressure.Chemicalsforboilingatabove150℃oraboilingpointbelow150deg.]C,although,butthermallylabile,thermallydecomposingthechemicalagent,maybeemployedsteamdistillationandvacuumdistillation,simplybeintroducedseparately.

1.Simplevacuumdistillationapparatus,theentiresystemconsistsofKirschnerportion(aClaisen)distillationflask,condenser,accumulator,suction(vacuum)system,interfacesandothercomponents.Wheninstallingavacuumdistillationunit,itshouldbenotedthatthedeviceissealed,goodqualitycorkmustbeselectedslightlylargerthanthediameterofthestopperflask.Corkmaterialshouldbeselecteddependingonthenatureoftheliquidsamplevapor.Ifthesteamdoesnotcauseerosionoftherubberstopper,rubberstopperusingeasilyremainsealed.Whenyouuseagoodqualitymatteappliances,butalsoeasytoremainsealed.Afterthedeviceisinstalled,beforestartingthedistillation,thesealmustbecheckedtoreducedpressuredistillationapparatus.Sealingdeviceinspectionmethodisconfirmedbymeasurementofchangeinpressureofthesystem,andifthepressurevaluedoesnotchange,indicatingthedevicedoesnotleakbeforedistillationunderreducedpressure.Whendistillationunderreducedpressure,thecapillarytubemaybeinsertedinthedistillationflasktopreventbumpingphenomenon.Theupperendofthecapillarytubeissealed,thelowerendisopen.Checkthatthesealedairtightafterdistillation,thepurifiedchemicalreagenttobeaddedtotheflask,theflaskwasaddedinanamounthalfthevolume,andthesystemevacuatedtoareducedpressurestate,andheatingisstarted.Theflaskwasimmersedinaheatingbathdepth,tobesurethatthebottleisbelowtheliquidsurfacelevelofsubstancedistilledheatingbath.Especiallyinahigh-boilingmaterialdistillation,theflaskwasimmerseddeepershouldtry.Whendistillationunderreducedpressure,oftenduetothepresenceoflowboilingsolventtoproduceafoam,requirealowdegreeofvacuumintheselow-boilingsolventwasdistilledoffbydistillationatthebeginning,andthengraduallyincreasethedegreeofvacuum.Lowvaporpressuredependsonthedegreeofvacuumoftheapparatusoftheliquidsample.Beforecoolingeffectmustbewelldistillates,otherwiseitisdifficulttoincreasethevacuumsystem.

Vztah mezi tlakem a bodem varu lze přiblížit pomocí následujícího vzorce: logP=A+(B/T)

whereinPisthevaporpressure,Tistheabsolutetemperature,A,Bisaconstant.Inpractice,theboilingpointcanbefoundinrelatedstressFIG.Whenthedistillationiscompletedistillationboilingpointcomponentsdesired,orwhenthedistillationprocessneedstobeinterrupted,heatingshouldbestopped,theheatingbathwasremoved,andaftercooling,slowlyreleasingthevacuumsystem,theapparatustoallowairtoenterthenormalpressureoffthevacuumpump.

steamdistillationistheseparationandpurificationmethodscommonlyusedinorganicmattersample,especiallyinthepresenceofalargenumberofresinousimpuritiesinthesampleupon.Thesamplewastreatedcompositionshouldmeetthefollowingconditions:thatisinsolubleoralmostinsolubleinwater,withboilingwaterduringprolongedcoexistencenochemicalchange,musthaveavaporpressureunderconditionsofgreaterthanabout100℃of10mmHg.

steamdistillation,isanothertechniqueforproducingheat-sensitivesamplesandforpurification.Itcanalsobeusedforgoodheattransferliquidsample,willdirectlycauselocaloverheatingheating.Steamdistillationmaybecompletedbycontinuouslysteamflowsthroughthevesselinthesamplemixture.Sometimestheuserdirectlyintotheflaskwithwaterforthesamepurpose.Steamcarryinggasphasevolatilecomponentandsuchalargeconcentratedvolatilematerialrelatedtotheirvaporpressureinthevapormixtureinthevapormixture.

Thistechniqueisverymild,duringthedistillationwillnotbedistilledmaterialisheatedtohigherthanthetemperatureofthesteam.Attheendoftheprocess,thesteamiscondensedandseparatedmaterial.Typically,theyareimmiscibleandmayformtwophasesareseparated.Sometimesanalyticalchemistmusthaveanadditionalsamplepreparationtechnique,suchasfluid-tocompletelyseparateaqueousandorganiclayersmultipleliquidextraction.

2.Simplemeansofsteamdistillation,Asteamgeneratoris,asthelevelgaugeglassBcanbeseenthattheheightofthewatersurfaceoccurs.Shengwaterisgenerallyappropriatecontainervolumeof75%,iftoofull,boilingwaterrushedtotheflask.SafetyglasstubeCisalmostinsertedinthebottomofthegeneratorA.Whenthepressureinsidethecontaineristoolarge,thewatercanrisealongtheglasstube,inordertoadjusttheinnerpressure.Ifthesystemisclogged,thewaterwillbeejectedfromtheupperopeningofthetube,itshouldbecheckedatthistimethesteamconduitundertheroundbottomflaskwhethertheportisblocked.Usingtheaboverectifyingpartgenerallynecked500mlroundbottomflask.Inordertopreventtheliquidinthebottleduetosplashjumpintothecondensertubes,sothatthepositionoftheflaskwastiltedby45degreesinthedirectionofthegenerator.Bottleofliquidsampleshouldnotexceed1/3ofitsvolume.EndofthesteamintroducingpipetobebentE,itisontheverticallyoutintothebottomofthebottleandclosethecentralbottom.SteamoutletpipeF(approximately30°angled)innerdiameterEispreferablylargerthanthenumberoftubes,insertoneendofthecorkwithtwoholes,exposingapproximately5mm,andtheotherendconnectedtothecondenser.DistillateliquidpipeintothereceptaclethroughtheaccessH.Availablewaterbathcoolingtheperipheralreceptacle.

inthesteamgeneratorandtheneckedroundbottomflaskshouldbeinstalledbetweenaT-shapedpipe,connectedatthelowerendofaT-piecespringclipG,inordertotimelyremovecondensedwaterdropletsclogging.When

steamdistillation,firstthesamplesolutionwasplacedinD.HeatingthesteamgeneratortonearboilinguntilaftertheGintensifythesteamevenlyintotheroundbottomflask.InordernottocondensethesteamandexcessiveaccumulationofD,itcanbesetatanetasbestosD,ifnecessary,tomakesmallflame.Heatingratemustbecontrolledsothatallthesteamcanbecondensedinthecondenser.Ifthevolatilesubstancewithwaterhavingahighermeltingpointvaporcondensedinthesolidwaseasilyprecipitated,itshouldadjusttheflowrateofthesmallcondensateaftercondensingitremainsliquid.Ifthesolidhasprecipitated,andthenearclogging,temporarilystopstheflowofcoolingwater,coolingwaterisevennecessarytotemporarilyletgo,sothatthemeltedmaterialflowsintothereceptaclewiththewater.Itmustbenoted,whenthecondensertobere-introducedintothejacketcoolingwater,needtobecarefullyandslowlyflowsinto,topreventquenchingduetorupturecondenser.Casehasbeenblockedcondenser,distillationwasstoppedimmediately,andtrytoclear.Suchasusingaglassrodtopokeoutorcloggingofmaterialtothehotwaterinacondensersoastomeltthetankjacket.

duringdistillationifitbreaksordistillationwascomplete,thespringclipmustfirstopenthethroughGatmosphere,thenheatingwasstopped,ortheliquidsuckedD,A,willbeinverted.Duringthedistillation,thewaterlevelrisesrapidlyiffoundsafeintubeC,thencloggingoccursinthesystem,thenitshouldimmediatelyopenthespringclipG,andthentheheatwasremoved.Beexcludedbeforecontinuingpluggingsteamdistillation.

III.Oprava

fractionaldistillationiscarriedoutbyfractionaldistillationcolumninthedistillationprocess,thechemicalagentisrectifiedinthedistillationflaskafterboiling,thesteamfromthegardenbottomflaskevaporatesintoafractionatingcolumn,condensedinthefractionatingcolumnintoaliquidportion.Theliquidduetohighcontentoflow-boilingcomponents,andthereforealsolowerthantheboilingpointoftheliquidtemperatureinthedistillationflask.Whenthedistillationflasktoanotherportionofthevaporrisesinthefractionationcolumn,andthentheliquidhascondensedbyheatexchange,re-boilingit,whiletheascendingvaporispartiallycondensedinitself,andtherefore,ithasproducedanewtheliquid-vaporequilibrium,theresultsofthelow-boilingcomponentinthevaporhaveincreased.Whenthenewvaporriseswithinthedistillationcolumn,andiscondensedintoaliquid,andthenbyheatexchangewithanotherportionoftheascendingvaporboils.Duetoconstantlyascendingvaporcondensationandevaporationfractionatingthecolumn,andeachtimebothevaporationandcondensationofthesteaminthelow-boilingcomponentcontinuestoincrease.Accordingly,duringascentofsteaminthefractionatingcolumn,similarlyrepeatedaftersimpledistillationofthelowboilingcomponentthevaporgraduallyincrease.Thus,inthefractionationprocessiscriticaldephlegmatorapparatus,ifappropriateselectedfractionatingcolumncancomeoutatthetopofthefractionatingcolumnvaporcondensedandtheresultingliquidmaybeapurecomponentoralow-boilinglow-boilingaccountedeffluentmaincomponent.

fractionationcapacityandefficiencyofthefractionationcolumn,respectively,as"theoreticalplatesvalue"and"heightequivalenttheoreticalplate(theHETP)"represented.Avalueequivalenttoatheoreticalplatesimpledistillation.Thedistillationcolumnhavingafractionatingcapabilityofthesame,whichisnotnecessarilyequallength.Forexample:A,Btwodephlegmator,theirvalues​​are20theoreticalplates,Aistheheightof60cmandaheightof20cmacetate.Obviously,boththeoreticalplateheightequivalentisdifferent.Becausetheheightequivalentoftheoreticalplate:

HETP=heightofthedistillationcolumn/theoreticalplatenumber

Therefore,theoreticalplatesAfractionatingcolumnheightequivalentof3cm,andacetatetheoreticalplatesfractionatingcolumnheightequivalentof1cm.Itcanbeseenthroughthisexample,theequivalentoftheoreticalplatesofthedistillationcolumnheightislower,thehigheritsefficiencyinfractionationunitlength.

Duringdistillationoperation,themainfractionatingcolumnselectedaccordingtotheleveldifferencebetweentheboilingpointandtheboilingpointofthechemicalagentintherectificationbodywithimpurities.Ifthedifferenceinboilingpointinthetwocomponentsabove100℃,afractionatingcolumnmaynotbeused;iftheboilingpointdifferenceisabout25℃,optionallyconventionalfractionatingcolumn;iftheboilingpointdifferenceisabout10℃,requireselaboratefractionatingcolumn,suchasmicro-Grofractionatingcolumnandthelike.Distillationprocessusingtheheatsourcemustbestabletoensureaheatingtemperaturestable.Onlystrictcontrolandconstantheatinginordertomaintainthedesiredrefluxratio.Ifheatedtooquickly,willproducefloodingphenomenon,thefractionationefficiencyispoor.Iftheheatingistooslow,youcanonlyplaytheroleofafractionatingcolumnrefluxcondenser,simplydistilledoutanything.Further,atthetimeofdistillation,refluxanddistillaterequiresanappropriateratio,i.e.refluxratioshouldbeappropriate,itsvalueisequaltothevalueoftheoreticalplatesfractionatingcolumnsubstantiallyso,tomakethenormaldistillationprocess.

IV.Thepracticalapplicationofdestilaci a rektifikaci

destilaci a rektifikacimainlyusedforliquidorheatingliquidcanbeachemicalagent,inparticularfororganicchemicalspurification.Priortodistillationorrectification,sometimestheadditionofcertainchemicalreagents,chemicalreactionwithachemicalreagenttobepurifiedofimpuritiesoccurs,generatingahigherboilingpoint(orless)substance,ismoreeasilyremovedinadistillationorrectification.

duringdistillationorrectification,isoftenthefirstdistillatefractionisremovedandthefinalremainingfraction,twoofthemoreremoved,thehigherthepurityofthechemicalagent,buttheloweryields.