Химически реагент

Определение на химичните реагенти

Chemicalreagentshavebeenwidelyusedinindustry,agriculture,medicalandhealth,lifesciences,inspectionandquarantine,environmentalprotection,energydevelopment,nationaldefenseandmilitaryindustry,Scientificresearchandallwalksoflifeinthenationaleconomy,butwhatisa"chemicalreagent",whatcontentitcontains,anditisstillaverydifficultthingtogiveitanaccuratedefinition.Earlychemicalreagentsonlyreferto"purechemicalsusedtodeterminethecompositionorcompositionofsubstancesinchemicalanalysisandchemicaltests."Itwaslaterexpandedto"chemicalsusedtoachievechemicalreactions",andthechemicalsreferredtoby"chemicalreagents"havelonggonebeyondthiscategory.Somepeoplethinkthat"chemicalsusedinscientificexperiments"canbecalled"chemicalreagents."Amorecomprehensivedefinitionofchemicalreagentscanbe:compoundsorelementsofvariouspuritylevelsusedinchemicaltests,chemicalanalysis,chemicalresearchandothertests.

Актуални национални стандарти

GB/T14305-1993 химичен реагент циклохексан

GB15346-1994 опаковане и маркировка на химически реагент

GB/T15347-1994 химически реагент скорбинова киселина

GB/T15895-1995 химичен реагент 1,2-дихлороетан

GB/T15896-1995 химичен реагент мравчена киселина

GB/T15897-1995 химичен реагент калциев карбонат

GB/T15898-1995 химичен реагенткобалнитратхексахидрат (кобалнитрат)

GB/T15899-1995 Химичен реагент манганов сулфат монохидрат (манганов сулфат)

GB/T15901-1995 Химичен реагент меден хлориддихидрат (меден хлорид)

GB/T629-1997 химически реактиви натриев хидроксид

GB/T1264-1997 химически реактиви натриев флуорид

GB/T640-1997 химически реактиви натриев бикарбонат

GB/T671-1998 химичен реагент магнезиев сулфат

GB/T689-1998 химичен реагент пиридин

GB/T1401-1998 химически реагент динатриев медетат

GB/T1268-1998 химически реактиви натриев тиоцианат

GB/T642-1999 химичен реагент калиев дихромат

GB/T649-1999 химичен реагент калиев бромид

GB/T684-1999 химичен реагент толуен

GB/T1276-1999 химичен реагент амониев флуорид

GB/T2305-2000 Химичен реагент фосфорен пентоксид

GB/T6684-2002 химически реагент 30% водороден пероксид

GB/T678-2002 химически реагент етанол (абсолютен етанол)

GB/T12591-2002 химически реагент етер

GB/T682-2002 химичен реагентхлороформ

GB/T679-2002 химически реагент етанол (95%)

PreparationofGB/T601-2002chemicalreagentstandardtitrationsolution

PreparationofpreparationsandproductsusedinGB/T603-2002chemicalreagenttestmethod

GB/T602-2002PreparationofStandardSolutionforImpurityDeterminationofChemicalReagents

GB/T652-2003 Химичен реагент Бариев хлорид

GB/T1265-2003 химически реактиви натриев бромид

GB/T606-2003chemicalreagentwaterdeterminationgeneralmethodKarlFischermethod

GB/T674-2003 химичен реагент Меден оксид на прах

GB/T656-2003 химичен реагент амониев дихромат

GB/T16493-1996 химически реагент тринатриев цитрат дихидрат (тринатриев цитрат)

GB/T16494-1996 химичен реагент ксилен

GB/T16496-1996 химичен реагент калиев сулфат

GB/T16983-1997 химически реагент два метилхлорида

GB/T17521-1998 Химичен реагент N,N-диметилформамид

GB/T615-2006Generalmethodforthedeterminationofboilingrangeofchemicalreagent

GB/T9721-2006GeneralRulesofChemicalReagentMolecularAbsorptionSpectrophotometry(UVandVisibleLightPart)

GB/T1263-2006ChemicalReagentDisodiumHydrogenPhosphateDodecahydrate(DisodiumHydrogenPhosphate))

GB/T1266-2006 химически реактиви натриев хлорид

GB/T617-2006generalmethodforthedeterminationofmeltingpointrangeofchemicalreagent

GB/T9722-2006GeneralPrinciplesofГазова хроматографияforChemicalReagents

GB/T605-2006GeneralMethodforChromaticityDeterminationofChemicalReagents

GB/T614-2006GeneralMethodforDeterminationofRefractiveИндexofChemicalReagents

GB/T622-2006 Химичен реагент хлороводородна киселина

GB/T626-2006 Химичен реагент Азотна киселина

GB/T616-2006GeneralMethodforBoilingPointDeterminationofChemicalReagents

GB/T9739-2006Chemicalreagentirondeterminationgeneralmethod

GB/T683-2006 Химичен реагент метанол

GB/T611-2006ChemicalreagentdensityGeneralmethodofdetermination

GB/T618-2006Generalmethodfordeterminationofcrystallizationpointofchemicalreagents

GB/T673-2006 Химичен реагент за фарсенов триоксид

GB/T609-2006Generalmethodfordeterminationoftotalnitrogeninchemicalreagents

GB/T637-2006 Химически реактиви натриев тиосулфатпентахидрат (натриев тиосулфат)

GB/T672-2006 Химичен реагентмагнезиев хлоридхексахидрат (магнезиев хлорид)

GB/T658-2006 Химичен реагент амониев хлорид

GB/T621-1993 Химичен реагент Бромоводородна киселина

GB/T9725-2007GeneralRulesforPotentiometricTitrationofChemicalReagents

GB/T9726-2007GeneralRulesforDeterminationofPotassiumPermanganateSubstancesReducedbyChemicalReagents

GB/T9732-2007Generalmethodforthedeterminationofammoniumwithchemicalreagents

GB/T9730-2007Generalmethodforthedeterminationofoxalatewithchemicalreagents

GB/T9724-2007GeneralrulesforthedeterminationofpHvalueofchemicalreagents

GB/T9729-2007Generalmethodforthedeterminationofchlorideinchemicalreagents

GB/T631-2007 Амонячна вода за химични реагенти

GB/T613-2007Generalmethodfordeterminationofspecificopticalpower(specificopticalrotation)ofchemicalreagents

GB/T638-2007 Химичен реагент калаен хлориддихидрат (Ⅱ) (калаен хлорид)

GB/T6685-2007 химически реагент хидроксиламин хлорид (хидроксиламин хидрохлорид)

GB/T625-2007 химичен реагент сярна киселина

GB/T676-2007 Химически реагент Оцетна киселина (ледена оцетна киселина)

GB/T9731-2007ChemicalReagentGeneralMethodforDeterminationofSulfurCompounds

GB/T1272-2007 Химичен реагент калиев йодид

GB/T9727-2007Generalmethodforthedeterminationofphosphateinchemicalreagents

GB/T10726-2007Generalmethodforthedeterminationofmetalimpuritiesbychemicalreagentsolventextraction-atomicabsorptionspectrometry

GB/T9723-2007GeneralRulesofFlameAtomicAbsorptionSpectrometryforChemicalReagents

GB/T670-2007 Химичен реагент сребърен нитрат

GB/T12589-2007 Химичен реагент Етилацетат

GB/T665-2007 Химичен реагент, безводен меден сулфат (Ⅱ) (меден сулфат)

GB/T9728-2007GeneralMethodforDeterminationofSulfateinChemicalReagents

GB/T633-1994 химически реактиви натриев нитрит

GB/T650-1993 химичен реагент калиев бромат

GB/T1279-2008 химически реагент желязосулфатодекахидрат (Ⅲ) амониев

GB/T2304-2008 химически реагент митарсен-замразени цинкови частици

GB/T9734-2008chemicalreagentaluminumdeterminationgeneralmethod

GB/T9855-2008 химичен реагент лимонена киселина монохидрат (лимонена киселина)

GB/T696-2008 химичен реагентура (урея)

GB/T660-1992 химичен реагент амониев тиоцианат

GB/T1291-2008chemicalreagentpotassiumhydrogenphthalate

GB/T10705-2008 Химичен реагент 5-сулфосалицилова киселина дихидрат (5-сулфосалицилова киселина)

GB/T9854-2008 Химичен реагент оксалова киселина дихидрат (оксалова киселина)

GB/T610-2008chemicalreagentgeneralmethodfordeterminationofarsenic

GB/T1273-2008 химичен реагент калиев хексацианоферат (Ⅱ) трихидрат (калиев фероцианид)

GB/T9742-2008Generalmethodfordeterminationofsilicateinchemicalreagents

GB/T9741-2008Generalmethodfordeterminationofignitionresiduesinchemicalreagents

GB/T9737-2008GeneralRulesfortheDeterminationofEasilyCarbonizedSubstancesinChemicalReagents

GB/T9740-2008GeneralMethodforDeterminationofEvaporationResiduesinChemicalReagents

GB/T632-2008 Химичен реагент Натриев тетраборатдекахидрат (натриев тетраборат)

GB/T2306-2008 химичен реагент калиев хидроксид

GB/T639-2008chemicalreagentanhydroussodiumcarbonate

GB/T15894-2008 Химичен реагент петролен етер

GB/T1292-2008 Химичен реагент амониев ацетат

GB/T686-2008 Химичен реагент ацетон

GB/T690-2008 химичен реагентбензен

GB/T1294-2008 химичен реагент L(+)-винена киселина

GB/T9733-2008chemicalreagentcarbonylcompounddeterminationgeneralmethod

GB/T9735-2008Generalmethodforthedeterminationofheavymetalsinchemicalreagents

GB/T9736-2008Generalmethodforthedeterminationofacidityandalkalinityofchemicalreagents

GB/T9738-2008Generalmethodfordeterminationofwater-insolublematterinchemicalreagents

GB/T15355-2008 Химичен реагентникелов хлоридхексахидрат (никелов хлорид)

GB/T643-2008ChemicalreagenthighmanganesePotassiumacid

GB/T3914-2008Chemicalreagentanodicstrippingvoltammetrygeneralrules

GB/T12590-2008 Химичен реагент - бутанол

GB/T9853-2008 Химичен реагент безводен натриев сулфат

GB/T667-1995 Химичен реагент цинков нитрат хексахидрат (цинков нитрат)

GB/T669-1994 ChemistryReagentстронциев нитрат

GB/T685-1993 химичен реагент, разтвор на формалдехид

GB/T691-1994 химически реагентанилин

GB/T693-1996 химически реактиви натриев ацетаттрихидрат (натриев ацетат)

GB/T694-1995 химичен реагент, безводен натриев ацетат

GB/T11547-2008plasticliquidchemicalreagentresistancedetermination

GB/T23942-2009ChemicalReagentGeneralPrinciplesofИндuctivelyCoupledPlasmaAtomicEmissionSpectrometry

GB/T657-2011 Химичен реагент амониев молибдат тетрахидрат (амониев молибдат)

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GB/T659-2011 химичен реагент амониев нитрат

GB/T1281-2011 химичен реагент бром

GB/T623-2011 химичен реагент перхлорна киселина

GB/T644-2011 химически реагент калиев хексацианоферат (Ⅲ) калиев ферицианид (калиев ферицианид)

GB/T661-2011 химически реагент железен сулфат хексахидрат (Ⅱ) амониев (амониев железен сулфат)

GB/T646-2011 химичен реагент калиев хлорид

GB/T664-2011 химически реагент железен сулфат хептахидрат (железен сулфат)

GB/T620-2011 химичен реагент хидрофлуорна киселина

GB/T688-2011 химичен реагент въглероден тетрахлорид

GB/T647-2011 Химичен реагент калиев нитрат

GB/T636-2011 Химически реактиви натриев нитрат

GB/T677-2011 Химичен реагент оцетен канхидрид

GB/T666-2011 Химичен реагент цинков сулфат хептахидрат (цинков сулфат)

GB/T1271-2011 Химичен реагент калиев флуориддихидрат (калиев флуорид)

GB/T641-2011 Химичен реагент калиев пероксодисулфат (калиев персулфат)

GB/T655-2011 химичен реагент амониев суперсулфат

GB/T15354-2011 химичен реагент трибутилфосфат

GB/T645-2011 химичен реагент калиев хлорат

GB/T653-2011 химичен реагент бариев нитрат

GB/T628-2011 химичен реагент борна киселина

GB/T687-2011 химичен реагент глицерол

GB/T675-2011 химичен реагент йод

GB/T651-2011 химичен реагент калиев йодат

GB/T1274-2011Chemicalreagentpotassiumdihydrogenphosphate

GB/T648-2011 Химичен реагент калиев тиоцианат

GB/T1288-2011Chemicalreagentpotassiumsodiumtartratetetrahydrate(potassiumsodiumtartrate)

GB/T1267-2011chemicalreagentsodiumdihydrogenphosphatedihydrate(sodiumdihydrogenphosphate)

GB/T654-2011 химичен реагент бариев карбонат

GB/T1270-1996 химичен реагент кобалтов хлорид хексахидрат (кобалтов хлорид)

GB/T1278-1994 химичен реагент амониев бифлуорид

GB/T1282-1996 Химичен реактив фосфорна киселина

GB/T1285-1994 Химичен реагент кадмиев хлорид

GB/T1289-1994 Химически реактиви натриев оксалат

GB/T1396-1993 химически реагент амониев сулфат

GB/T1397-1995 химичен реагент калиев карбонат

GB/T1400-1993 химичен реагентексаметилентетрамин

GB/T13353-1992Determinationoftheresistanceofadhesivestochemicalreagents.MetalsandmetalsTitle:

Заглавие, базирано на съдържанието

Стандартна субстанция, стандартен разтвор, стандартен разтвор на примеси, стандартна референтна субстанция, стандартна проба, линия стандартен реагент, индикаторен реагент, референтна субстанция, референтен реагенти, химични стандарти, химични стандарти, стандарти за инструменти, аналитични реагенти, първокласни реактиви, втори клас реактиви, ултрачисти реактиви, реактиви с висока чистота, еквивалентни пестични пречистващи стандарти, спектрални пречистватели, хроматографска чистота, електронна чистота, стандартна проба за стомана, стандартна проба за пигирон, стандартна проба за въглища, стандартна проба за руда и т.н.

Наименование, основано на употреба

Химически реагенти, общи реагенти, аналитични реагенти, диагностични агенти, учебни реагенти, експериментални реагенти, инструменти за разделяне, буферни разтвори, индикаторни реагенти, биологични петна, фоточувствителни материали, синтетични агенти, междинни продукти, химически суровини, анализ на качеството на водата, тестване на остатъчни пестициди, реактиви за молекулярна биология...

Заглавия, базирани на източника

Вносни реактиви, натурални екстракти, екстракти, сухи прахове, екстракти...

Персонализирани заглавия

Химикали, фини химикали, фармацевтични продукти, студени частични реагенти, специални реактиви, първокласни реактиви, втори клас реагенти, трети клас реагенти, реактиви с малка гама...

Наименования, базирани на свойства

Неорганични агенти, органични агенти, изотопи и белязани съединения, биохимични реагенти, аминокиселини и техни производни, протеини и пептиди, нуклеотиди и техни производни, монозахариди и полизахариди, ензими и коензими, антибиотици, витамини, багрила и пигменти, Хранителни вещества за обучение, хроматографски носители, биологични носители за електрофореза...,

Класификационна основа

Thecategoriesofchemicalreagentsarebasicallyclassifiedaccordingtotheirpurposeorsubjectmatter.Manynewcategorieshavebeenadded.Germany'sE.Merckcompanyisdividedinto20categoriesand88sub-categories.AmericanBaker(J.T.Baker)companyhas75majorcategoriesand124sub-categories.Withthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology,thevarietyofchemicalreagentsisbecomingmoreandmorediverse,andthetrendofcategorydivisionisgettingmoreandmoredetailed,andithasreachedtheserializationandmatchingofvarieties.

QualityИндex

Thequalitylevelsofchemicalreagentsarecomplexandtherearemanyvarieties,whichareparticularlyconfusing.Thegeneralconventionalvarieties(class1reagents)areessentialvarieties,andthereare225species,whicharebasicallycomplementaryproducedinmycountry'schemicalreagentbasesinBeijing,Tianjin,Shanghai,Xi'an,Chengdu,Guangzhou,andShenyang.TypeIIreagentsareusedinalmostallfields,andtheyarealsonecessaryvarietiesformanufacturers.Thereareabout1800-2000varieties.Suchreagentsareinlargedemandandwidelyused.Thereareabout3000-6000varietiesofthethreetypesofreagents,andmostoftheirapplicationfieldsarerelatedtothenationaleconomyandpeople'slivelihood,suchaschemical,metallurgy,electricpower,food,medicineandhealthandotherindustriesthatarespecificallyusedinindustryreagents.

Inmycountry,thereare225kindsofchemicalreagentsrepresentedbythreegrades:premiumgrade,analyticalgrade,andchemicalgrade,accordingtothenationalstandardsofthePeople’sRepublicofChinaandthestandardsissuedbytheformerMinistryofChemicalИндustry.These225kindsofchemicalreagents,intheformofstandards,stipulatethebasisofthecontentofchemicalreagentsinourcountry.Thecontentdeterminationofotherchemicalsisbasedonthis,andthecontentisdeterminedbymeasurement.Therefore,thequalityofthesechemicalreagentsisveryimportant.Atthesametime,these225chemicalreagentshavebecomebasicvarietiesduetotheirextremelywideuse.These225specieshavebeenmarkedinthecatalogofchemicalreagents.Inaddition,therearespecialreagents,theproductionvolumeisverysmall,almoston-demandproduction,thequantityisgenerallydesignatedbytheuser.

Общи нива на качество

Excellentgradepure(ГР,greenlabel):highcontentofmaincomponents,highpurity,suitableforpreciseanalysisandresearchwork,andsomecanbeusedasbenchmarkssubstance.

Analyticalpurity(AR,redlabel):highcontentofmaincomponents,highpurity,lowinterferenceimpurities,suitableforindustrialanalysisandchemicalexperiments.EquivalenttoforeignACSlevel(AmericanChemicalSocietystandard)

Chemicalpurity(CP,bluelabel):highcontentofmaincomponents,highpurity,presenceofinterferingimpurities,suitableforchemicalexperimentsandsyntheticpreparation.

Experimentalpure(LR,yellowlabel):highcontentofmaincomponents,poorpurity,nochoiceofimpuritycontent,onlysuitableforgeneralchemicalexperimentsandsyntheticpreparation.

Индикатори и петна (ID или SR, лилав етикет): изисква се уникална чувствителност.

Designatedlevel(ZD):Chemicalreagentscustomizedforspecificusersinaccordancewiththequalitycontrolindicatorsrequiredbyusers.

Electronicpure(MOS):suitablefortheproductionofelectronicproducts,withextremelylowelectricalimpuritycontent.

Еквивалентни агенти (3N, 4N, 5N): съдържанието на основния компонент е съответно 99,9%, 99,99%, 99,999% или повече.

Спектрална чистота: чистотата на основните компоненти е 99,99%

Описание на нивото:

Superiorgradepure—ГР

MicroorganismUse—FMB

AnalysisЧисто-AR

Индустриален-TECH

ChemicalЧисто—CP

Стаж—PRACT

Експериментално ниво—LR

Форсинтез—FS

Биохимиченgrade—пр.н.е

Индикатор—IND

HighperformanceТечна хроматография—HPLC

Газова хроматография—GC

Биологично оцветяванеing—BS

Течна хроматография—LC

Базово ниво—PT

ChromatographyUse—FCP

AtomicAbsorption—AAS

Тънкослойна хроматография—TLC

Infraredabsorption—IR

SpectrumЧисто—SP

NuclearMagneticResonance—NMR

SpectroscopyЧисто—UV

Fluorescenceanalysis—FIA

Синтез—SYN

Inorganicanalyticalreagentsarecommonlyusedinorganicchemicalsforchemicalanalysis.Itspurityishigherthanthatofindustrialproducts,withlessimpurities.

Organicreagentsforinorganicanalysisarespecialorganiccompoundssuchasprecipitationagents,extractants,chelatingagentsandindicatorsforthedetermination,separationandenrichmentofelementsintheanalysisofinorganicsubstances,Ratherthangeneralsolvents,organicacidsandorganicbases.Theseorganicreagentsmusthavegoodsensitivityandselectivity.Withthedevelopmentofanalyticalchemistryandchemicalindustry,suchreagentswithbettersensitivityandselectivitywillbedeveloped,suchasthosethathavecomplexingabilityforsomemetals(suchasalkalimetals,alkalineearthmetals)andammoniumionssince1967.ThisisthecasewithCrownethercompounds.

Primarystandardsarecompoundswithhighpurity,lessimpurities,goodstabilityandconstantchemicalcomposition.Inthereferencereagents,thereareclassificationssuchasvolumetricanalysis,pHmeasurement,andcalorificvaluemeasurement.Eachcategoryisdividedintothefirstbenchmarkandtheworkingbenchmark.AllthefirstbenchmarksmustbeverifiedbytheNationalAcademyofMetrology,andtheproductionunitusesthefirstbenchmarkasthemeasurementstandardforworkbenchmarkproducts.Thebenchmarkreagentsforcommercialoperationsmainlyrefertothevolumetricanalysisworkbenchmarksinthevolumetricanalysiscategory[contentrangeis99.95%to100.05%(weighttitration)].Generallyusedtocalibratethetitrant.

Standardsubstanceisachemicalsubstanceusedforcomparisoninchemicalanalysisandinstrumentanalysis,orachemicalusedtocalibrateaninstrument.Itschemicalcomposition,content,physicalandchemicalpropertiesandimpuritiesmustbeknown,andmeettheregulationsorberecognized.

Реагент Микроаналитичен реагент (Микроаналитичен реагент) е подходящ за определяне на субстанцията, допустимото количество е само постоянен процент (тегло е около 1~15 mg, обем е около 0,01 ~ 2 ml) Реагенти за микроанализ.

Organicanalyticalstandardsarechemicalreagentsusedforcomparisonwhendeterminingthecompositionandstructureoforganiccompounds.Itscompositionmustbeaccuratelyknown.Itcanalsobeusedformicroanalysis.

Pesticideanalyticalstandards(Pesticideanalyticalstandards)aresuitableforuseingaschromatographytoanalyzepesticidesordeterminepesticideresiduesascomparisonitems.Itscontentisrequiredtobeprecise.Therearesolutionspreparedfromatraceamountofasinglepesticide,andtherearealsomixedsolutionspreparedfrommultiplepesticides.

Refractiveindexliquid(Refractiveindexliquid)isahigh-puritystableliquidwithaknownrefractiveindex,usedtodeterminetherefractiveindexofcrystallinesubstancesandminerals.Therefractiveindexismarkedontheoutsideofeachpackage.

Normalsolutionisanaqueoussolutioncontainingonegramequivalentofsoluteinoneliterofsolution,thatis,asolutionwithaconcentrationof1N.ИндикаторИндикатор(Индикатор)isasubstancethatcanchangeitscolorundertheinfluenceofthepresenceofcertainsubstances.Itismainlyusedtoindicatetheendpointoftitrationinvolumetricanalysis.Generallycanbedividedintoacid-baseindicator,redoxindicator,adsorptionindicatorandsoon.Inadditiontoanalysis,theindicatorcanalsobeusedtotestthepresenceofcertainharmfulandtoxicsubstancesingasesorsolutions.

Testpaperisasmalldrypieceofpapersoakedinanindicatororreagentsolution.Itisusedtotestthepresenceofacertaincompound,elementorioninthesolution.Itisalsousedformedicaldiagnosis.Instrumentalanalyticalreagents

Instrumentalanalyticalreagentsarereagentsusedintheprocessofsampleanalysisusingspecialinstrumentsdesignedaccordingtotheprinciplesofphysics,chemistryorphysicalchemistry.Атомноабсорбционна спектроскопияstandards

Атомноабсорбционна спектроскопияstandardsareusedasstandardreagentswhenanalyzingsamplesbyatomicabsorptionspectroscopy.

Forchromatographyreagentsforchromatographyrefertoreagentsandmaterialsusedingaschromatography,liquidchromatography,gas-liquidchromatography,thin-layerchromatography,columnchromatographyandotheranalyticalmethods.Therearestationaryliquids,Supports,solvents,etc.

Пределектронна микроскопия(Пределектронна микроскопия)reagentsarefixatives,embeddingagents,stainsandotherreagentsusedinthefieldsofbiology,medicine,etc.,whenelectronmicroscopesareusedforresearchwork.

SolventforNMRspectroscopy(SolventforNMRspectroscopy)ismainlyadeuteratedsolvent(alsocalledheavyhydrogenreagentordeuteratedreagent),whichisthehydrogenintheorganicsolventstructureisdeuterated(heavyHydrogen)replacedbythesolvent.Innuclearmagneticresonanceanalysis,thedeuteratedsolventmaynotshowpeaks,anditwillnotinterferewiththehydrogenspectrumanalysisofthesample.

Forpolarography(Forpolarography)reagentsrefertothereagentsneededforquantitativeandqualitativeanalysisbypolarography.

SpectralpuritySpectrographyreagentsusuallyrefertoreagentswithhigherpuritythathavebeenanalyzedbyemissionspectroscopy.

Spectrophotometricpurereagentreferstothesolutionusedwhenspectrophotometricanalysisisused.Ithasacertainwavelengthtransmittanceandisusedforqualitativeandquantitativeanalysis.

Биохимични реактивиБиохимични реактивиrefertobiologicalmaterialsororganiccompoundsrelatedtolifescienceresearch,aswellasreagentsforclinicaldiagnosisandmedicalresearch.Duetothewiderangeandrapiddevelopmentoflifesciences,thiskindofreagentshasawidevarietyandcomplexproperties.

Други нива

Inaddition,itisstilldividedintothefollowingmorethan20levels.

AASatomicabsorptionspectroscopy,пр.н.еbiochemicalreagents,BPBritishPharmacopoeia,БРbiologicalreagents,BSbiologicalstains,CRchemicalreagents,ЕПultra-pure,FCPchromatography,FMPmicroscopy,FSsynthesis,GCgaschromatography,ГРsuperiorgradepurereagent,HPLChighpressureliquidchromatography,IDindicator,IRinfraredabsorptionspectrum,MARtraceanalysisreagent,NMRnuclearmagneticresonancespectroscopy,OASorganicanalysisstandard,PAanalysis,Практpractice,PTstandardReagents,Пурисspecialpure,Purumpure,SPspectralpure,технindustrialuse,TLCthinlayerchromatography,НАГОРЕultra-pure,USPUnitedStatesPharmacopoeia,UVultravioletspectrophotometrypure,JXteachingreagent...MIpharmaceuticalgrade,Iindustrialgrade,FFoodgrade,Mcosmeticgrade,Ssolid,Lliquid,Efineproduct,Ccrudeproduct...

Obviously,thegeneralqualitystandardsofthesechemicalreagentsaredividedintotheabove-mentionedqualitylevels,whichisfarfrombeingsatisfied.Researchandproductionneeds.

Срок на годност на химичните реактиви

Chemicalreagentsareaffectedbyexternalfactorssuchastemperature,lightirradiation,airandwaterduringstorage,transportationandsales,andarepronetodeliquescent,Physicalandchemicalchangessuchasmycin,discoloration,polymerization,oxidation,volatilization,sublimationanddecompositionmakeitinvalidandunusable.Therefore,itisnecessarytoadoptreasonablepackaging,appropriatestorageconditionsandtransportationmethodstoensurethatthechemicalreagentsdonotdeteriorateduringstorage,transportationandsales.Somespecialrequirementsforstorageandtransportationshouldbehandledinaccordancewithspecialrequirements.Somechemicalreagentshaveacertainshelflife,sobecarefulwhenusingthem.

Thevalidityperiodofchemicalreagentsvariesgreatlywiththechemicalpropertiesofchemicals.Undernormalcircumstances,chemicallystablesubstanceshavealongershelflifeandsimplerstorageconditions.

StabilityJudgmentPrinciples

Forpreliminaryjudgmentofthestabilityofasubstance,thefollowingprinciplescanbefollowed:

Inorganiccompounds,aslongastheyareproperlystored,thepackagingisintact,Canbeusedforalongtime.However,thosesubstancesthatareeasilyoxidizedanddeliquescentcanonlybestoredforashortperiodoftime(1to5years)underdark,cool,anddryconditions,dependingonwhetherthepackagingandstorageconditionscomplywiththeregulations.

Organiclow-molecular-weightcompoundsaregenerallymorevolatile,andthepackaginghasbetterairtightnessandcanbestoredforalongtime.Butitiseasytobeoxidized,decomposedbyheat,easytopolymerize,photosensitivesubstances,etc.

Органичните полимери, особено жизнените материали като почви, полизахариди, протеини, ензими, пептиди и др., са изключително податливи на въздействието на микроорганизми, температура и светлина и губят своята активност или се развалят. Следователно те трябва да се съхраняват в хладилник (замразени) и времето им е по-кратко.

Inprinciple,referencematerials,referencematerialsandhigh-puritymaterialsshouldbestoredinstrictaccordancewiththepreservationregulationstoensurethatthepackagingisintact,avoidbeingaffectedbythechemicalenvironment,andthestoragetimeshouldnotbetoolong.Ingeneral,thereferencesubstancemustbeusedwithinthevalidityperiod.

Thestabilityofmostchemicalsisstillrelativelygood,andthespecificconditionsshouldbedeterminedbyactualuserequirements.Iftheanalysisdataisgenerallyunderstood,ortheanalysisresultsdonothavespecificandaccuraterequirements,suchasgeneralteachingexperiments,generalrequirementscanbemadeforthequalitylevelofchemicalreagents.However,thefactorytestdataisusedtoguideproduction,andthequalityindicatorsofchemicalreagentsmustnotbeambiguous.Asforthechemicalreagentsusedingeneralsyntheticpreparation,inmostcases,theuseofindustrial-gradechemicalreagentsissufficient.However,thesyntheticpreparationofresearch-typeandcertainspecialchemicals,insomecases,hasverystrictrequirementsonthequalityofrawmaterialsandrequiresstrictcontrol.

Inactualuse,peoplearealwaysaccustomedtojudgingtheeffectivenessofchemicalreagentsbythedateofproduction.Infact,itisridiculous.Forexample,inaninstitutionofhigherlearning,wehaveseenwarehousemanagerscleanoutallchemicalreagentsthathavebeenoutofthefactoryformorethan2years,andpreparethemfordestruction.Thereasonisthattheyhaveexpired.Nottomentionthehugewasteoffunds,thedestructionplanofthevariouschemicalhazardousmaterialsaloneisenoughtobeprohibitive.What'smore,commercialcompaniesarenotallowedtobuy,topreventbusinessesfrom"deceivingpeople",thesituationislamentable,andthesituationissad!Later,itissaidthattheselargequantitiesofchemicalreagentswere"deeplydugandburied".

Inshort,theeffectivenessofchemicalreagentsmustfirstbejudgedbasedonthephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofthechemicalreagentsthemselves,andthenthestorageconditionsofthechemicalreagentsshouldbeobservedvisually,andthenwhethertheycanbeusedaccordingtospecificneedsTheconclusion.

Класификация на химичните реактиви

Текуща ситуация в моята страна

Thereasonableclassificationofchemicalreagentsisfarfrommeetingtheneedsofscientificresearchandproductionduetothedraftingofnationalstandards,anditisseriousIthinderstheproductionofchemicalreagentsinmycountry.Relyingontheexisting227nationalstandardsandindustrystandardsalone,itisdifficulttogivesuchalargenumberofchemicalreagentstoaqualitystandard;itisimpossibleforustogiveallchemicalsanationalqualitystandard,eventomentionWhenitcomestoreagents,thefirstthingpeoplethinkofiswhetheritisanalyticallypureorchemicallypure.Evenwhenpeoplebuy,nomatterwhatthepurposeis,theydon’tbuynon-analyticalreagents.Thisisalsothereasonwhymanyvarietiesthatdonothavenationalstandards,butinexplicablyandbaselesslyendowproductswitharedARlabel.Itisalsobecauseinactualuse,inmanycases,thetrue"analyticalpurity"isnotrequired,andillegalmanufacturersdeliberatelylabeltheindustrialproductswith"analyticalpurity"toconfusethepuritylevel.Althoughqualityaccidentswillnotoccurinmostcases,butHowever,itseriouslyinterfereswiththeproductionanduseofreal"standardmaterialsandanalyticalgrades".

Furthermore,sincethenumberofconventionalchemicalsishuge,butthereareonly225varietiesclassifiedassuperiorgrade,analyticalgradeorchemicalgrade,then,whatelseisnecessary!

Разликата между моята страна и света

Internationally,thereisanincreasingtrendtolabelthegradeandpurityofchemicalreagentsaccordingtothemaincontentandphysicalconstantsofchemicals.Itisgenerallybelievedthatwhenthemaincontent,boilingpoint,meltingpoint,density,refractiveindex,andevenultraviolet,infrared,andnuclearmagneticspectraareallknown,thepurityandscopeofapplicationofasubstancecanbecompletelydetermined.Thisisthemaindifferencebetweenthelabelcontentofchemicalreagentsinmycountryandthatofforeignchemicalreagentlabels.

Actually,theso-calledchemicalreagentsarethemedicamentsusedinchemicalexperiments;thatis,thechemicalmedicamentsneededinchemicalexperiments.Theclassificationofchemicalpurityandgradecanbedeterminedaccordingtothequalitystandardsandscopeofapplicationofchemicalagents.

Класификация

Accordingtothis,thefirstlevelofchemicalreagentsisdividedintofourcategories:standardreagents,biochemicalreagents,electronicreagents,andexperimentalreagents.

Theclassificationprincipleoflevel1standardnotonlyclarifiesthequalitystandard,butalsotakesintoaccountthescopeofapplicationofthechemicalreagent.

Thelevel2standardisafurtherdivisionbasedonthelevel1classification.Itisafurtherclarificationandlimitationofthelevel1standard.

tothreecriteriaarecomparedwiththeoriginaloldstandard,ormoreaccuratedeterminationofthespecifiedpurposes.

intheLevel1or2isdetermined,aqualityindicatorofthechemicalagent,andthepurposeofthisapplicationthequalityindicatorscanbeappliedalsodetermined.

SoIproposewillbepublishedasananalyticalexaminationofthecriteriaandstandards"standardreagent"qualitystandardsgiveclearnationalstandards.Theremaining"biochemicalreagents,electronicreagents,laboratoryreagents"qualityindicatorscanfollowcorporatestandards,orupdatetheincreasinglytechnologicalrequirementsofdiscretionbythemarket,sothatwechemicalsindustrywillbeabletogetoutoftheoriginal"deadset"ofoldtraditions,developmentboomingup!

standardreagentsBZ:inaccordancewithinternationalnormsandtechnicalrequirementsinordertoidentifyasastandardsubstanceanalysisarbitration.

БиохимиченsSH:preparationbiochemistryandbiochemicalsynthesis.

electrophilesDZ:generallyreferstothechemicalsandmaterialsusedinelectronicinformationindustry,includingintegratedcircuitsanddiscretedeviceschemicals,theprintedcircuitboardsupportingchemicals,chemicalsandsurfacemountdisplaychemicalsandotherdevices.

ReagentsSY:accordingtothe"maincontent"determined"syntheticreagent."Reagentsusedinthesyntheticchemistrylaboratorypreparation,separationandpurification,tomeetthegeneralrequirementsofsynthesisreagents.

етикети химикали

QualityИндexchemicalsdeterminestheapplicablerangeofchemicalreagents,soIrecommend,shouldannouncetheapprovalofa"chemicalreagentlabel"nationalstandard,thestandardagivenchemicalreagentsandstandardizedqualityindicatorsdescribethesystemwillregulatetheproductionofchemicalreagents,rationaluseofgreatsignificance.

"Chemicalreagenttag", носещ информация:

registeredtrademark:clearlylabeledregisteredtrademarksofthemanufacturers.

QualityStandard:QualityStandardsimultaneouslydisplaycolorandpinyincodesintwoways.Colordisplayareaasalowerlabelmanufacturerinformationregion;pinyincodes(suchasBZ,SH,DZ,SY)indicatedinaprominentposition.

Китайскиnameandtype:ProductnameКитайскиChemicalSocietyin1982published"inorganicchemicalnomenclaturesystems,""organicchemicalsnomenclaturesystem"asthemainbasis,takingintoaccountthelong-termuseofthecommonname,Productname.Andcanbedescribedasaccuratelyaspossiblegivenpatternsordosageofthechemicalagent,forexample:anaqueousalcoholsolution,powder,blocks,sticks,paste,suchasa200meshsizeoreventhelike.

АнглийскиName:NametoIНАГОРЕAC1982Nianpublished"inorganicchemicalnomenclaturesystems,""organicchemicalsnomenclaturesystem"asthemainbasis,takingintoaccountthecommonname,tradename,long-termuse.

CASAccessionNumber: състои се от 9 цифри в квадратни скоби, разделени на три части, напр. [58-08-2]CASRegistryNumberis кофеин.

=molecularformula:MolecularSimplecorrectlywritten,i.e.,theamountofmolecularformulashown,inaccordancewiththe1968publicationoftheinternationalatomicaccuratelycalculatethemolecularweight.TheNaOH=40.10.

content:percentagecontentbymassofthechemicalagentinaccordancewiththemethodspecifiedmolecularnationalstandardsorcorporatestandard,determined.The99.9%.

Количество на опаковката: количеството твърдо вещество на опаковката е дадена маса на химичен агент, като 1g, 5g, 10g, 25 g, 100 g, 250 g, 500 g, 1000 g подобно.

Appearance:concise,accuratetermtodescribethephysicalstateofthecolorofthechemicalagent,odor,andotherphysicalstate.

физически константи: последователно в реда на дадените физични константи измерена стойност "точка на топене, точка на кипене, плътност, вискозитет, оптично въртене, коефициент на пречупване, разтворимост" и други подобни.

където спектър: и "UV, IR, NMR спектроскопия" други характеристики пикове на абсорбция.

interferingimpurities:primarilygivenmasspercentageofimpurities,inparticularthemaininterferenceaccuratemeasuredvalueofthemasspercentageofimpurities.

DГРNo:hazardousgoodsmustbemarkedDГРnumber.Productionbatch:givenproductionlotinordertofacilitatetraceability.

където в чуждестранна разработка на химични реактиви

tocompletedevelopment,alternatedirectionsreagentandancillaryservices

ancillarybenefits,likeimproveduserservice.Onforeignmarkets,almostindustrial,routineexperimentationandtestingprojectsinagriculture,health,environmentalprotection,scientificresearch,teaching,therearesetsofteststrip,completesolution,pre-filledcolumn,paintedsheets,variousreferencestandardandspecialeasytousetoolsandsmallequipment.Chemicalcompositionforeignmarketshasspecificreagents,suchasbasicmodulepeptide:p-aminoacids,FMOs(fluorenylmethoxycarbonylgroupZhuoyl)-aminoacidsandotheraminoacidsreagents;OrganicSynthesisbasicmodules:chloride,alcohol ,phenols,aldehydes,amines,carboxylicacids,ketones,andthelike;andreagentscustomizedaccordingtouserrequirements.MostReagentCompany,fortheconvenienceofusers,butalsosupportingsalesoflaboratoryinstrumentsoftenusedinsmall-scale,securesupplies,variousmapsdata(chemicalstructure,infrared,ultraviolet,emissionspectroscopy,chromatography,etc.),compoundsafetydata,variousdataanalysisandothertestingmethods,ofwhichaconsiderableportionispublishedonCD-Rom.

Manyagentsnotonlyselltangibleproducts,butalsotechnicalconsultingbusiness,providingawiderangeoftechnicalservices,suchas:analysisandtesting,intermediatescale-up,processdesignproducts,developenvironmentalprotectionprograms.

attachedgreatimportancetoscientificresearchanddevelopment

Thereagentscompanyhasitsownresearchanddevelopmentdepartment,mostcompaniesalsodevelopwithuniversities,researchinstitutes,individualscientistsorotherwell-knowncompanies,andevenmergersthecompanyhassometechnicalexpertise,inordertoenhancethecompany'sdevelopmentandcompetitiveness.Theyhesitatetoinvestheavilyinresearchanddevelopment,scienceandtechnologyinordertosuddenlyflyfierce,intothefiercecompetitioninthemarketdominantposition.ToMerckKGaA,forexample,their1994-Foreachyearbetween1998andfundsscientificresearchanddevelopmentinvestmentaccountedfortheproportionofsaleswere9.56%,9.O%,8.18%,9.76%and10.05%,overthesameperiod, Merck (Дарм.), както следва: 43,52%, 43,94%, 45,29%, 47,0% и 46,95%.

производство, управление и технологичен напредък

Mostofthecompany'sfactory,haveachievedISO9001,ISO9002,GMPorFDAqualitymanagementcertification.On-siteproductionprocess,industrialhygieneandenvironmentalprotectionwidespreadattention.Inrecentyears,withthecategoryofvarietiessupplymarketcontinuestoexpand,manyofthemorecomplextechnologyhasbeenwidelyadopted.Applicationofcomputer-aidedproduction,technology,businessmanagement,hasbeenverycommon.MostReagentCompany,arebuiltonitsownInternetsite,inadditiontoreportedcompanyhistory,institutionalstructure,businessscope,catalogandothervarieties,mainlyonlineshopping,andconstantly(aboutaweek)postedoperatingstatusofthecompany,technicalachievements,internationalcooperation,planningguidelinesandotherinformation.TheirannualfixedassetinvestmentinhugenumbertoMerckKGaA,forexample,from1994-1998theproportionofinvestmentinfixedassetssalesaccountedfor7.2%,8.4%,7.4%,6.7%,7.7%(eg:1998to624millionmarks,equivalenttoRMB2.8billionyuan).

съюзсътрудничество, съвместна операция е тенденция

varietycategoriesofchemicalagentsisextremelycomplicated,extensiveserviceside,involvingalmostalltheeconomicandtechnologicalfields,anycompany,wantstosweepreagentsallbusinessisimpossible,andreagentsalesischaracterizedbybiggerandmoreandmorevarietiesofbusiness,increasesalesopportunities,thegreaterthelikelihoodofthatisprofit.So,20yearsago,thereisatrendofsmallcompaniesmoveclosertolargecompanies,smallcompaniesorlargecorporatemergersofmutualco-operation.Headabletosupplytheworld'slargestspeciesistheSigma-A1drichcompany,theyadvantageinthevarietyisalmostirreplaceable,thisisindeedtheresultofajointoperation.

Thenewtrendinthecountrythroughtheestablishmentofe-commerceplatformtoachieveintegration,alliances,jointventureseffects,likeAvatar,chemistry,Китайскиagentsspecializeine-commercetradingplatformsuchreagentshasoccurred,thiswouldbeagoodintegrationofthedomesticagentresources.Becauseitconformstothedevelopmentofonlinesalesmodel,webelievethiswillbeamajortrendinthefuturereagentsbusiness.

безопасна употреба на химически реактиви

1.Запалими химикали

GeneralChemicalsflashpointbelow25℃flammablechemicalagentsincluded,theyaremostlyhighlyvolatileliquids,incaseoffiretoburn.Thelowertheflashpoint,themoreflammable.Commonflashpointpetroleumopened,ethylcondensateethane,diethylether,gasoline,twocarbonizedcarbon,withalkylenepropionate,benzene,ethylacetate,methylacetateinthefollowingyeast-4℃.

mustnotbeusedeasilywhenusingbrightfirealkenylChemicals.Heatcannotbedirectlyheatedbyaheater,generallydonothavewaterbath,suchchemicalagentsshouldbestoredinthecoolair,intherefrigerator,therefrigeratormustbeexplosionproof,therehadbeenstoredinaconventionalrefrigeratoretherandfire,accidentburnedtheentirelaboratory,wheretheuseofsuchalargenumberofchemicalreagents,looktomaintaingoodventilation,theuseofelectricalappliancesmustbeexplosion-proofelectricalequipment,thesitemustnothaveopenflames.

highlyflammablereagentsduringcombustioncanleadtoanexplosion,chemicalreagents,suchassomesolid:nitrocellulose,picricacid,trinitrotoluene,trinitrobenzene,oroverlappingazidecompound,saltHuoandsoon,frieditselfisburning,whenexposedtoheatorflame,whichburnseasilyordecomposition,explosion,itmustnotbeheateddirectlyintheuseofthesechemicals,shouldalsopayattentionsurroundingtheuseofthesechemicalsdonothaveanopenflame.

Anothertypeofsolidchemicalreagents,waterviolentreactioncanoccur,andemitalotofheat,cancauseanexplosion.Suchchemicalagentsaremetalpotassium,sodium,lithium,calcium,aluminumhydride,calciumcarbideandthelike,intheuseofthesechemicalagentsmustavoidtheirdirectcontactwithwater.

andsomesolidoncontactwithachemicalagentastrongoxidationcanoccur.Thephosphorus;somecontactwithanoxidizingagentorheatintheair,bytheimpactorfrictioncancauseabruptcombustionorexplosion.Thephosphorussulfide,redphosphorusmagnesium,zinc,aluminum,Rong,brainandthelikefall,whenusingthesechemicalagents,wemustpayattentionnottoohighambienttemperature(typicallynotmorethan30℃,preferably20℃orless)Avoidcontactwithstrongoxidizingagents.

Inthelaboratorypersonnelusingflammablechemicals,oughttowearthenecessaryprotectiveequipment,itisbesttowearprotectiveglasses.

2. Токсични химикали

Generalchemicalsaretoxictohumans,mustbeavoidedwhenusingthelargenumberofinhalation,theagentperformancesAfteruse,towashtheirhands,wash,bath,replacingclothesforinhalationoringestionofsomesmallamountofdeaththatcanpoisonthechemicalagent,theamountofbiologicaltestdeath(LD50)isreferredtoastoxicchemicalagentsat50mg/kgorless,suchas:potassiumcyanide,sodiumcyanideandothercyanide,arsenictrioxideandcertainarsenide,mercurydichloride,mercuryandcertainsalts,sulfate,dimethylandthelike.Whenusingclearperformancechemicals,wemustunderstanditsLD50.Firstaidtreatmentatsomeofthecommonlyusedtoxicchemicalsmustunderstandthesetoxicchemicals,toxicchemicalsmusthaveaspecialpersontokeepstrictcontrolusage.

3. Корозивни химикали

anychemicalagentacrosstheskin,mucousmembranes,eyes,respiratoryorgansmustbecleaned,inparticular,haveastrongcorrosivetotheskin,mucousmembranes,eyes,respiratorychemicalagents(whetherliquidorsolid),suchas:avarietyofacidsandbases,phosphorustrichloride,phosphorusoxychloride,bromine,phenol,Tianshuihydrazineandthelike.Butalsotoavoidhittingtheskin,mucousmembranes,eyes,respiratory,usebeforeusemustunderstandaidaccesstothesetreatmentmethodscorrosivechemicalagents.Usedilutealkalisuchasacidwashing,etc.spilledontheskin .

4.StrongoxidizingChemicals

strongoxidizingchemicalagentsareperoxidecontainingoxyacidorstrongoxidizingpoweranditssalts.Suchas:acidperoxide,Annnitrate,potassiumnitrate,perchloricacidandsaltsthereof,acidandsaltsthereofcomplexweight,permanganicacidanditssalts,peroxyacid,peraceticacid,sweetwine,phosphoruspentoxideandthelike.Strongoxidizingchemicalagentsunderappropriateconditionscanemitoxygenexplosion,andformexplosivemixtureswithorganicmagnesium,aluminum,zinc,sulfurandothercombustibles,somewatermayexplode,theuseofsuchastrongoxidizingchemicalinreagent,ambienttemperatureisnothigherthan30℃,goodventilationshouldnotbeorganicorreducingsubstanceswiththeuseofcommon(heating).

5.Когато радиохимични

Theuseofsuchchemicalagents,theuseofradioactivematerialsaccordingtoacertainmethod,totakeprotectivemeasures.

дестилация и ректификацияchemicals

inthechemicalanalysis,instrumentalanalysis,thepreparationofinorganic,organicsynthesisandotherscientificexperimentareoftenencounteredwithinsufficientpuritychemicalsorbuytherequiredpuritychemicals,whichrequirespurificationofourownexistingchemicalsinthelaboratoryinordertoobtaintherequiredpuritychemicals.Apolloagentwillbesmallseriesfollowingbriefдестилация и ректификацияmethods.

дестилация и ректификация

дестилация и ректификацияisawidelyusedmethodofpurification,mixingthecomponentsinaccordancewiththeliquidmixturebetweenliquidandvaportheinequalityofpurified,purificationisthefirstchoiceofvolatileandsemi-volatilechemicals.

принцип на дестилация

isseparatedbydistillationfromtheimpuritiescontainedinthechemicalagentvolatileandsemi-volatileimpuritiesandvolatileorsemi-volatileevaporatingbodyTheywillnotbevolatileandlessvolatileimpuritiesleftbehind.Changethesaturationvaporpressureofasubstanceatdifferenttemperaturesisthebasisoftheseparationbydistillation.Generallyspeaking,ifthevaporpressureoftheliquidmixtureoftwocomponentshavingalargedifferenceinthevaporphasecanbemorevolatileandsemi-volatilecomponentsenrichment.Twophases-liquidandvaporphases-canberecoveredseparately,volatileandsemi-volatilecomponentsintheenrichedvaporwithoutvolatilecomponentsareenrichedintheliquidphase.

Inadditiontothehydrocarbonmixtureandafewotherexamples,Raoult'slawandDalton'slawcanbeusedinsystemsoverthemixture,andthemixturesolutionisoftennotdesirabletofollowthevaporphase-phasebehavior.Applicationofthesetwolawscanbeavolatilethanthetwocomponentsofthebinarysystem(aAB):aAB=(YA/YB)/(XA/XB)=P0A/P0Bwherein,YAandYBaretheequilibriumcomponentsaandBinthegasphasemolefraction,XAandXBarethecomponentsaandBintheliquidphaseatequilibriummolefraction,andP0BareP0AvaporpressureofcomponentsaandBatequilibrium,obeysthelawsofRaouilt.WiththeincreaseaAB,alsoincreasesthedegreeofenrichment.

Второ, обикновена дестилация

simpledistillationapparatus,showninFigure-1.Whenaliquidsampleisheatedandconvertedintosteam,whichiscondensedpartbacktotheoriginaldistillationflask,whiletherestiscondensedandtransferredtoacollectionvessel,theformeriscalledrefluxliquid,whichiscalledeffluent.Sincethedistillationiscarriedoutcontinuously,escapeandstoredintheliquidcompositionisgraduallychanging.Asamethodofpurifyinganimpuritychemicalagents,separationonlysimpledistillationboilingpointhasalargedifference,suchastheboilingpointofthemainbodyofthedifferenceisgreaterthan50℃impurities.Toremoveimpuritieshavingaboilingpointoflessthan50deg.]Cwiththemaindifferenceis,willhavetouserectificationmethoddescribedbelow.

simpleatmosphericdistillationunitmainlyconsistsdistillationflask,thermometer,condenser,atrapandaheatingdevicewithasidetubeandothercomponents.Wheninstalled,themercurythermometershouldbeinsertedintotheballpositionlowerthanthesidetube,thesidetubeandacondenserconnectedtothedistillationflaskhorizontal,themouthandthecollectorconnectedtoacondenser(FIG.1).Whenusingadistillationapparatus,distilledaccordingtoboilingpointsoftheselectedtestchemicalheatingmeans:Thedistillationoftheliquidataboilingpointofless80℃,heatedwithhotwaterbath;liquidataboilingpointofabove100deg.]C,asbestosfireorbystraight-lineoilbath;liquidatatemperatureofabove200℃,heatingmetalbath.

distillationataboilingpointofabove150℃liquid,aircondensermaybeused.Inordertosmoothlycarryoutdistillation,andbeforeheating,thezeolitemustbeaddedaftertheliquidintheflaskchargedtotheflask.Becauseoftheverysmoothinnersurfaceoftheflask,andthebumpingpronetooverheating,sothatthedistillationcannotbecarriedoutsmoothly.Whenaddinganewzeolite,etc.mustAftercooledtoroomtemperaturebeforetheliquidwasaddedtotheflasktoavoidtheriskofboilingoccursabruptly.Zeoliteusedonlyonce,whentheliquidiscooled,addedtotheoriginalzeoliteloseseffect,sowhenthedistillationwascontinuedtobeaddedtothenewzeolite.Inatmosphericdistillation,havingaporous,easilycrushed,andthematerialwasdistilleddoesnotcausechemicalreactions,canbeusedasthezeolite.Zeolitesarecommonlycutinto1-2mmpiecesorunglazedclaytiles.

distillationapparatusisinstalled,theheatingcanbegin.Whenthesubstancebeginstoboilthedistillationflask,thetemperaturerisingsharply.Whenthetemperaturerisestotheboilingpointsubstanceweredistilleddown1℃,theintensityofheatingoftheheaterisadjustedtoalevelofadroppersecondeffluent.Inthiscase,theheatingtemperatureofthebathshouldbemaintainedathigherthantheboilingpointofthematerialinthedistillationflask20℃.Higherboilingmaterialdistillation,steamBeforei.e.lessthantheoutersidetubeandrefluxcoolingair,itcannotbedistilledoff.Atthistime,theflamecanbeuniformlyheatedusingamicrotubeofthelowersurfaceside,buttoavoidexcessiveheating,sothatthethermometerdoesnotindicatethecorrectboilingpoint,butalsoontheheatingportionoftheretortwithoutproperinsulation.Inthedistillationoperation,itshouldbenotedthefollowing:

(1)controltheheatingtemperature.Ifaheatingbath,thetemperatureoftheheatingbathshouldbeseveraldegreeshigherthantheboilingpointofthedistillationoftheliquid,otherwiseitisdifficulttobedistilledoutofthedistillate.Themoretheheatingbathtemperaturehigherthantheboilingpointoftheliquidofthedistillation,thedistillationfaster.However,thetemperatureoftheheatingbathcannotbetoohigh,otherwiseitwillleadtoanupperportionoftheretortandacondenservaporpressureaboveatmosphericpressure,anaccidentmayoccur,inparticular,moreparticularattentionduringdistillationlowboilers.Acamel,heatingbathtemperaturenothigherthantheboilingpointof30deg.]Cdistilledmaterial.

(2)distillingthehigh-boilingsubstances,condenseeasilybecause,oftendoesnotreachthevaporsideofthetube,i.e.thedistillationflaskhasbeencondenseddropsbackintothedistillationflask.Therefore,weshoulduseshort-neckedretortortakeinsulationmeasurestoensurethesmoothprogressofdistillation.

(3)priortothedistillation,thedistillationmustunderstandthechemicalagentandtheboilingpointandsaturatedvaporpressureimpurities,todeterminewhen(i.e.,atwhattemperature)tocollectpurechemicalagent.

(4) трябва да бъде в дестилационната колба с кръгло дъно.

aboilingpointof40-150deg.]CmaybeemployedChemicalssimpledistillationundernormalpressure.Chemicalsforboilingatabove150℃oraboilingpointbelow150deg.]C,although,butthermallylabile,thermallydecomposingthechemicalagent,maybeemployedsteamdistillationandvacuumdistillation,simplybeintroducedseparately.

1.Simplevacuumdistillationapparatus,theentiresystemconsistsofKirschnerportion(aClaisen)distillationflask,condenser,accumulator,suction(vacuum)system,interfacesandothercomponents.Wheninstallingavacuumdistillationunit,itshouldbenotedthatthedeviceissealed,goodqualitycorkmustbeselectedslightlylargerthanthediameterofthestopperflask.Corkmaterialshouldbeselecteddependingonthenatureoftheliquidsamplevapor.Ifthesteamdoesnotcauseerosionoftherubberstopper,rubberstopperusingeasilyremainsealed.Whenyouuseagoodqualitymatteappliances,butalsoeasytoremainsealed.Afterthedeviceisinstalled,beforestartingthedistillation,thesealmustbecheckedtoreducedpressuredistillationapparatus.Sealingdeviceinspectionmethodisconfirmedbymeasurementofchangeinpressureofthesystem,andifthepressurevaluedoesnotchange,indicatingthedevicedoesnotleakbeforedistillationunderreducedpressure.Whendistillationunderreducedpressure,thecapillarytubemaybeinsertedinthedistillationflasktopreventbumpingphenomenon.Theupperendofthecapillarytubeissealed,thelowerendisopen.Checkthatthesealedairtightafterdistillation,thepurifiedchemicalreagenttobeaddedtotheflask,theflaskwasaddedinanamounthalfthevolume,andthesystemevacuatedtoareducedpressurestate,andheatingisstarted.Theflaskwasimmersedinaheatingbathdepth,tobesurethatthebottleisbelowtheliquidsurfacelevelofsubstancedistilledheatingbath.Especiallyinahigh-boilingmaterialdistillation,theflaskwasimmerseddeepershouldtry.Whendistillationunderreducedpressure,oftenduetothepresenceoflowboilingsolventtoproduceafoam,requirealowdegreeofvacuumintheselow-boilingsolventwasdistilledoffbydistillationatthebeginning,andthengraduallyincreasethedegreeofvacuum.Lowvaporpressuredependsonthedegreeofvacuumoftheapparatusoftheliquidsample.Beforecoolingeffectmustbewelldistillates,otherwiseitisdifficulttoincreasethevacuumsystem.

Връзката между налягането и точката на кипене може да бъде изведена приблизително чрез следната формула: logP=A+(B/T)

whereinPisthevaporpressure,Tistheabsolutetemperature,A,Bisaconstant.Inpractice,theboilingpointcanbefoundinrelatedstressFIG.Whenthedistillationiscompletedistillationboilingpointcomponentsdesired,orwhenthedistillationprocessneedstobeinterrupted,heatingshouldbestopped,theheatingbathwasremoved,andaftercooling,slowlyreleasingthevacuumsystem,theapparatustoallowairtoenterthenormalpressureoffthevacuumpump.

steamdistillationistheseparationandpurificationmethodscommonlyusedinorganicmattersample,especiallyinthepresenceofalargenumberofresinousimpuritiesinthesampleupon.Thesamplewastreatedcompositionshouldmeetthefollowingconditions:thatisinsolubleoralmostinsolubleinwater,withboilingwaterduringprolongedcoexistencenochemicalchange,musthaveavaporpressureunderconditionsofgreaterthanabout100℃of10mmHg.

steamdistillation,isanothertechniqueforproducingheat-sensitivesamplesandforpurification.Itcanalsobeusedforgoodheattransferliquidsample,willdirectlycauselocaloverheatingheating.Steamdistillationmaybecompletedbycontinuouslysteamflowsthroughthevesselinthesamplemixture.Sometimestheuserdirectlyintotheflaskwithwaterforthesamepurpose.Steamcarryinggasphasevolatilecomponentandsuchalargeconcentratedvolatilematerialrelatedtotheirvaporpressureinthevapormixtureinthevapormixture.

Thistechniqueisverymild,duringthedistillationwillnotbedistilledmaterialisheatedtohigherthanthetemperatureofthesteam.Attheendoftheprocess,thesteamiscondensedandseparatedmaterial.Typically,theyareimmiscibleandmayformtwophasesareseparated.Sometimesanalyticalchemistmusthaveanadditionalsamplepreparationtechnique,suchasfluid-tocompletelyseparateaqueousandorganiclayersmultipleliquidextraction.

2.Simplemeansofsteamdistillation,Asteamgeneratoris,asthelevelgaugeglassBcanbeseenthattheheightofthewatersurfaceoccurs.Shengwaterisgenerallyappropriatecontainervolumeof75%,iftoofull,boilingwaterrushedtotheflask.SafetyglasstubeCisalmostinsertedinthebottomofthegeneratorA.Whenthepressureinsidethecontaineristoolarge,thewatercanrisealongtheglasstube,inordertoadjusttheinnerpressure.Ifthesystemisclogged,thewaterwillbeejectedfromtheupperopeningofthetube,itshouldbecheckedatthistimethesteamconduitundertheroundbottomflaskwhethertheportisblocked.Usingtheaboverectifyingpartgenerallynecked500mlroundbottomflask.Inordertopreventtheliquidinthebottleduetosplashjumpintothecondensertubes,sothatthepositionoftheflaskwastiltedby45degreesinthedirectionofthegenerator.Bottleofliquidsampleshouldnotexceed1/3ofitsvolume.EndofthesteamintroducingpipetobebentE,itisontheverticallyoutintothebottomofthebottleandclosethecentralbottom.SteamoutletpipeF(approximately30°angled)innerdiameterEispreferablylargerthanthenumberoftubes,insertoneendofthecorkwithtwoholes,exposingapproximately5mm,andtheotherendconnectedtothecondenser.DistillateliquidpipeintothereceptaclethroughtheaccessH.Availablewaterbathcoolingtheperipheralreceptacle.

inthesteamgeneratorandtheneckedroundbottomflaskshouldbeinstalledbetweenaT-shapedpipe,connectedatthelowerendofaT-piecespringclipG,inordertotimelyremovecondensedwaterdropletsclogging.When

steamdistillation,firstthesamplesolutionwasplacedinD.HeatingthesteamgeneratortonearboilinguntilaftertheGintensifythesteamevenlyintotheroundbottomflask.InordernottocondensethesteamandexcessiveaccumulationofD,itcanbesetatanetasbestosD,ifnecessary,tomakesmallflame.Heatingratemustbecontrolledsothatallthesteamcanbecondensedinthecondenser.Ifthevolatilesubstancewithwaterhavingahighermeltingpointvaporcondensedinthesolidwaseasilyprecipitated,itshouldadjusttheflowrateofthesmallcondensateaftercondensingitremainsliquid.Ifthesolidhasprecipitated,andthenearclogging,temporarilystopstheflowofcoolingwater,coolingwaterisevennecessarytotemporarilyletgo,sothatthemeltedmaterialflowsintothereceptaclewiththewater.Itmustbenoted,whenthecondensertobere-introducedintothejacketcoolingwater,needtobecarefullyandslowlyflowsinto,topreventquenchingduetorupturecondenser.Casehasbeenblockedcondenser,distillationwasstoppedimmediately,andtrytoclear.Suchasusingaglassrodtopokeoutorcloggingofmaterialtothehotwaterinacondensersoastomeltthetankjacket.

duringdistillationifitbreaksordistillationwascomplete,thespringclipmustfirstopenthethroughGatmosphere,thenheatingwasstopped,ortheliquidsuckedD,A,willbeinverted.Duringthedistillation,thewaterlevelrisesrapidlyiffoundsafeintubeC,thencloggingoccursinthesystem,thenitshouldimmediatelyopenthespringclipG,andthentheheatwasremoved.Beexcludedbeforecontinuingpluggingsteamdistillation.

III.Коригиране

fractionaldistillationiscarriedoutbyfractionaldistillationcolumninthedistillationprocess,thechemicalagentisrectifiedinthedistillationflaskafterboiling,thesteamfromthegardenbottomflaskevaporatesintoafractionatingcolumn,condensedinthefractionatingcolumnintoaliquidportion.Theliquidduetohighcontentoflow-boilingcomponents,andthereforealsolowerthantheboilingpointoftheliquidtemperatureinthedistillationflask.Whenthedistillationflasktoanotherportionofthevaporrisesinthefractionationcolumn,andthentheliquidhascondensedbyheatexchange,re-boilingit,whiletheascendingvaporispartiallycondensedinitself,andtherefore,ithasproducedanewtheliquid-vaporequilibrium,theresultsofthelow-boilingcomponentinthevaporhaveincreased.Whenthenewvaporriseswithinthedistillationcolumn,andiscondensedintoaliquid,andthenbyheatexchangewithanotherportionoftheascendingvaporboils.Duetoconstantlyascendingvaporcondensationandevaporationfractionatingthecolumn,andeachtimebothevaporationandcondensationofthesteaminthelow-boilingcomponentcontinuestoincrease.Accordingly,duringascentofsteaminthefractionatingcolumn,similarlyrepeatedaftersimpledistillationofthelowboilingcomponentthevaporgraduallyincrease.Thus,inthefractionationprocessiscriticaldephlegmatorapparatus,ifappropriateselectedfractionatingcolumncancomeoutatthetopofthefractionatingcolumnvaporcondensedandtheresultingliquidmaybeapurecomponentoralow-boilinglow-boilingaccountedeffluentmaincomponent.

fractionationcapacityandefficiencyofthefractionationcolumn,respectively,as"theoreticalplatesvalue"and"heightequivalenttheoreticalplate(theHETP)"represented.Avalueequivalenttoatheoreticalplatesimpledistillation.Thedistillationcolumnhavingafractionatingcapabilityofthesame,whichisnotnecessarilyequallength.Forexample:A,Btwodephlegmator,theirvalues​​are20theoreticalplates,Aistheheightof60cmandaheightof20cmacetate.Obviously,boththeoreticalplateheightequivalentisdifferent.Becausetheheightequivalentoftheoreticalplate:

HETP=heightofthedistillationcolumn/theoreticalplatenumber

Therefore,theoreticalplatesAfractionatingcolumnheightequivalentof3cm,andacetatetheoreticalplatesfractionatingcolumnheightequivalentof1cm.Itcanbeseenthroughthisexample,theequivalentoftheoreticalplatesofthedistillationcolumnheightislower,thehigheritsefficiencyinfractionationunitlength.

Duringdistillationoperation,themainfractionatingcolumnselectedaccordingtotheleveldifferencebetweentheboilingpointandtheboilingpointofthechemicalagentintherectificationbodywithimpurities.Ifthedifferenceinboilingpointinthetwocomponentsabove100℃,afractionatingcolumnmaynotbeused;iftheboilingpointdifferenceisabout25℃,optionallyconventionalfractionatingcolumn;iftheboilingpointdifferenceisabout10℃,requireselaboratefractionatingcolumn,suchasmicro-Grofractionatingcolumnandthelike.Distillationprocessusingtheheatsourcemustbestabletoensureaheatingtemperaturestable.Onlystrictcontrolandconstantheatinginordertomaintainthedesiredrefluxratio.Ifheatedtooquickly,willproducefloodingphenomenon,thefractionationefficiencyispoor.Iftheheatingistooslow,youcanonlyplaytheroleofafractionatingcolumnrefluxcondenser,simplydistilledoutanything.Further,atthetimeofdistillation,refluxanddistillaterequiresanappropriateratio,i.e.refluxratioshouldbeappropriate,itsvalueisequaltothevalueoftheoreticalplatesfractionatingcolumnsubstantiallyso,tomakethenormaldistillationprocess.

IV.Thepracticalapplicationofдестилация и ректификация

дестилация и ректификацияmainlyusedforliquidorheatingliquidcanbeachemicalagent,inparticularfororganicchemicalspurification.Priortodistillationorrectification,sometimestheadditionofcertainchemicalreagents,chemicalreactionwithachemicalreagenttobepurifiedofimpuritiesoccurs,generatingahigherboilingpoint(orless)substance,ismoreeasilyremovedinadistillationorrectification.

duringdistillationorrectification,isoftenthefirstdistillatefractionisremovedandthefinalremainingfraction,twoofthemoreremoved,thehigherthepurityofthechemicalagent,buttheloweryields.